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P-38 Lightning

2008-07-21T19:20:50Z

Trigger2:

{{Infobox Aircraft
|name =P-38L
|image =Lockheed P-38L 061019-F-1234P-015.jpg
|type =Fighter/attacker
|country =USA
|manufacturer =Lockheed
|crew =Single-seat
|wingspan =52'
|length =37'10"
|height =9'10"
}}
''General master page for all P-38 Lightnings

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament. The aircraft was used in a number of different roles, including dive bombing, level bombing, ground strafing, photo reconnaissance missions and extensively as a long-range escort fighter when equipped with droppable fuel tanks under its wings. The P-38 was used most extensively and successfully in the Pacific Theater of Operations and the China-Burma-India Theater of Operations, where it was flown by the American pilots with the highest number of aerial victories to this date. America's top ace Richard Bong earned 40 victories (in a Lightning he called Marge), and Thomas McGuire (in Pudgy) scored 38. In the South West Pacific theater, it was a primary fighter of United States Army Air Forces until the appearance of large numbers of P-51D Mustangs toward the end of the war.

The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in active production throughout the duration of American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to VJ Day

== Design and Development ==

Lockheed designed the P-38 in response to the 1937 United States Army Air Corps Circular Proposal X-608 request for a high-altitude interceptor aircraft having "the tactical mission of interception and attack of hostile aircraft at high altitude". Specifications called for a maximum airspeed of at least 360 miles per hour (580 km/h) at altitude, and a climb to 20,000 feet (6100m) within 6 minutes; the toughest set of specifications USAAC had presented to that date. The Bell P-39 Airacobra and the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk were designed to the same requirement, as was the unbuilt Vultee XP1015.

The Lockheed design team, under the direction of Hall Hibbard and “Kelly” Johnson, considered a range of configurations. All options considered by Lockheed were twin-engined, as it was judged that no single available engine was powerful enough to be able to meet the USAAC's requirements. (Engine development during World War II subsequently saw an approximate doubling of fighter engine horsepower, allowing many later single engine designs to achieve 400+ mph.)

The eventual design was somewhat unique in comparison to existing fighter aircraft. The Lockheed team chose twin booms to accommodate the tail assembly, engines and turbo superchargers, with a central nacelle for the pilot and armament. The nose was designed to carry two Browning .50" (12.7 mm) machine guns with 200 rounds per gun, two .30" (7.62 mm) Brownings with 500 rounds per gun, and an Oldsmobile 37 mm cannon with 15 rounds. Clustering all the armament in the nose was unlike most other U.S. aircraft, which used wing-mounted guns where the trajectories were set up to crisscross at one or more points in a "convergence zone". The nose-mounted guns did not suffer from having their useful ranges limited by pattern convergence, meaning good pilots could shoot much farther. A Lightning could reliably hit targets at any range up to 1,000 yards (910 m), whereas other fighters had to pick a single convergence range between 100 and 250 yards (230 m). The clustered weapons had a "buzz saw" effect on the receiving end, making the aircraft effective for strafing as well.

The Lockheed design incorporated tricycle undercarriage and a bubble canopy, and featured two 1000 hp (746 kW) turbo-supercharged 12-cylinder Allison V-1710 engines fitted with counter-rotating propellers to eliminate the effect of engine torque, with the superchargers positioned behind the engines in the booms. It was the first American fighter to make extensive use of stainless steel and smooth, flush-riveted butt-jointed aluminum skin panels. It was the first fighter faster than 400 mph (640 km/h).

Lockheed won the competition on 23 June 1937 with its Model 22, and was contracted to build a prototype XP-38 for US$163,000, though Lockheed's own costs on the prototype would add up to US$761,000. Construction began in July 1938 and the XP-38 first flew on 27 January 1939 The 11 February 1939 flight to relocate the aircraft for testing at Wright Field was extended by General Henry "Hap" Arnold, commander of the USAAC, to demonstrate the performance of the aircraft. It set a cross-continent speed record by flying from California to New York in seven hours and two minutes, but landed short of the Mitchel Field runway in Hempstead, New York, and was wrecked. However, on the basis of the record flight, the Air Corps ordered 13 YP-38s on 27 April 1939 for US$134,284 apiece. (The initial "Y" in "YP" was the USAAC's designation for a "prototype" while the "X" in "XP" was for "experimental".)

Manufacture of the YP-38s fell behind schedule, at least partly due to the need for mass-production suitability making them substantially different in construction than the prototype. Another factor was the sudden required facility expansion of Lockheed in Burbank, taking it from a specialized civilian firm dealing with small orders to becoming a large government defense contractor making Venturas, Harpoons, Lodestars, Hudsons, and designing the Constellation airliner for TWA. The first YP-38 was not completed until September 1940, with its maiden flight on 17 September. The 13th and final YP-38 was delivered to the Air Corps in June 1941; 12 aircraft were retained for flight testing and one for destructive stress testing. The YPs were substantially redesigned and differed greatly in detail from the hand-built XP-38. They were lighter, included changes in engine fit, and the propeller rotation was reversed, with the blades rotating outwards (away) from the cockpit at the top of their arc rather than inwards as before. This improved the aircraft's stability as a gunnery platform.

Test flights revealed problems initially believed to be tail flutter. During high-speed flight approaching Mach 0.68, especially during dives, the aircraft's tail would begin to shake violently and the nose would tuck under, steepening the dive. Once caught in this dive, the fighter would enter a high-speed compressibility stall and the controls would lock up, leaving the pilot no option but to bail out (if possible) or remain with the aircraft until it got down to denser air where he might have a chance to pull out. During a test flight in May 1941, USAAC Major Signa Gilkey managed to stay with a YP-38 in a compressibility lockup, riding it out until he recovered gradually using elevator trim. Lockheed engineers were very concerned at this limitation, but first they had to concentrate on filling the current order of aircraft. Sixty-five Lightnings were finished by September 1941, with more on the way.

By November 1941, many of the initial assembly line challenges had been met and there was some breathing room for the engineering team to tackle the problem of frozen controls in a dive. Lockheed had a few ideas for tests that would help them find an answer. The first solution tried was the fitting of spring-loaded servo tabs on the elevator trailing edge; tabs that were designed to aid the pilot when control yoke forces rose over 30 pounds, as would be expected in a high-speed dive. At that point, the tabs would begin to multiply the effort of the pilot's actions. The expert test pilot, 43-year-old Ralph Virden, was given a specific high-altitude test sequence to follow and was told to restrict his speed and fast maneuvering in denser air at low altitudes since the new mechanism could exert tremendous leverage under those conditions. A note was taped to the instrument panel of the prototype underscoring this instruction. On 4 November 1941, Virden climbed into YP-38 #1 and completed the test sequence successfully, but 15 minutes later was seen in a steep dive followed by a high-G pullout. The tail unit of the aircraft failed at about 3,000 ft (910 m) during the high-speed dive recovery; Virden was killed in the subsequent crash. The Lockheed design office was justifiably upset, but their design engineers could only conclude that servo tabs were not the solution for loss of control in a dive. Lockheed still had to find the problem; the Army Air Corps was sure it was flutter, ordering Lockheed to look more closely at the tail.

Although the P-38's empennage was completely skinned in aluminum (not fabric) and was quite rigid, in 1941, flutter was a familiar engineering problem related to a too-flexible tail. At no time did the P-38 suffer from true flutter. To prove a point, one elevator and its vertical stabilizers were skinned with metal 63% thicker than standard—the increase in rigidity made no difference in vibration. Army Lt. Colonel Kenneth B. Wolfe (head of Army Production Engineering) asked Lockheed to try external mass balances above and below the elevator, though the P-38 already had large mass balances elegantly placed within each vertical stabilizer. Various configurations of external mass balances were equipped and dangerously steep test flights flown to document their performance. Explaining to Wolfe in Report No. 2414, Kelly Johnson wrote "...the violence of the vibration was unchanged and the diving tendency was naturally the same for all conditions." The external mass balances did not help at all. Nonetheless, at Wolfe's insistence, the additional external balances were a feature of every P-38 built from then on.

After months of pushing NACA to provide Mach 0.75 wind tunnel speeds (and finally succeeding), the compressibility problem was revealed to be the center of lift moving back toward the tail when in high-speed airflow. The compressibility problem was solved by changing the geometry of the wing's underside when diving so as to keep lift within bounds of the top of the wing. In February 1943, quick-acting dive flaps were tried and proven by Lockheed test pilots. The dive flaps were installed outboard of the engine nacelles and in action they extended downward 35° in 1½ seconds. The flaps did not act as a speed brake, they affected the center of pressure distribution so that the wing would not lose its lift. Late in 1943, a few hundred dive flap field modification kits were assembled to give North African, European and Pacific P-38s a chance to withstand compressibility and expand their combat tactics. Unfortunately, these crucial flaps did not always reach their destination. In March 1944, 200 dive flap kits intended for ETO P-38Js were destroyed in a mistaken identification incident in which an RAF fighter shot down the Douglas C-54 Skymaster bringing the shipment to England. Back in Burbank, P-38Js coming off the assembly line in spring 1944 were towed out to the tarmac and modified in the open air. The flaps were finally incorporated into the production line in June 1944 on the last 210 P-38Js. The delay in bringing the dive flap and its freedom of tactical maneuver to the fighting pilot was far too lengthy. Of all Lightnings built, only the final 50% would have the dive flaps installed as an assembly line sequence.

Buffeting was another early aerodynamic problem, difficult to sort out from compressibility as both were reported by test pilots as "tail shake". Buffeting came about from airflow disturbances ahead of the tail; the airplane would shake at high speed. Leading edge wing slots were tried as were combinations of filleting between the wing, cockpit and engine nacelles. Air tunnel test number 15 solved the buffeting completely and its fillet solution was fitted to every subsequent P-38 airframe. Fillet kits were sent out to every squadron flying Lightnings. The problem was traced to a 40% increase in air speed at the wing-fuselage junction where the chord/thickness ratio was highest. An airspeed of 500 mph (800 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m) could push airflow at the wing-fuselage junction close to the speed of sound. Filleting forever solved the buffeting problem for the P-38E and later models.

Another issue with the P-38 arose from its unique design feature of outwardly rotating counter-rotating propellers. Losing one of two engines in any twin engine non-centerline thrust aircraft on takeoff creates sudden drag, yawing the nose toward the dead engine and rolling the wingtip down on the side of the dead engine. Normal training in flying twin-engine aircraft when losing an engine on takeoff would be to push the remaining engine to full throttle; if a pilot did that in the P-38, regardless of which engine had failed, the resulting engine torque and p-factor force produced a sudden uncontrollable yawing roll and the aircraft would flip over and slam into the ground. Eventually, procedures were taught to allow a pilot to deal with the situation by reducing power on the running engine, feathering the prop on the dead engine, and then increasing power gradually until the aircraft was in stable flight. Single-engine takeoffs were possible, though not with a maximum combat load.

The engine sounds were a unique, rather quiet "whuffle", because the exhausts were muffled by the General Electric turbosuperchargers on the twin Allison V12s. There were early problems with cockpit temperature regulation; pilots were often too hot in the tropic sun as the canopy could not be opened without severe buffeting, and were often too cold in northern Europe and at high altitude, as the distance of the engines from the cockpit prevented easy heat transfer. Later variants received modifications to solve these problems.

On 20 September 1939, before the YP-38s had been built and flight tested, the USAAF ordered 66 initial production P-38 Lightnings, 30 of which were delivered to the USAAF in mid-1941, but not all these aircraft were armed. The unarmed aircraft were subsequently fitted with four .50s (instead of the two .50 and two .30 of their predecessors) and a 37 mm cannon. They also had armor glass, cockpit armor and fluorescent cockpit controls. One was completed with a pressurized cabin on an experimental basis and designated XP-38A. Due to reports the USAAF was receiving from Europe, the remaining 36 in the batch were upgraded with small improvements such as self-sealing fuel tanks and enhanced armor protection to make them combat-capable. The USAAF specified that these 36 aircraft were to be designated P-38D. As a result, there never were any P-38Bs or P-38Cs. The P-38D's main role was to work out bugs and give the USAAF experience with handling the type.

In March 1940, the French and the British ordered a total of 667 P-38s, designated Model 322F for the French and Model 322B for the British. The aircraft would be a variant of the P-38E, without turbo-supercharging (due to a U.S. government export prohibition), and twin right-handed engines instead of counter-rotating, for commonality with the large numbers of Curtiss P-40 Tomahawks both nations had on order. After the fall of France in June 1940, the British took over the entire order and re-christened the plane Lightning I. Three were delivered in March 1942 and, after discovering, without superchargers, at low altitude and when using lower-octane British aircraft fuel, they had a maximum speed of 300 miles per hour (480 km/h) and poor handling characteristics, the entire order was canceled. The remaining 140 Lightning I's were completed for the USAAF with counter-rotating engines but still minus turbo-superchargers. Most were relegated to United States Army Air Forces training units under the designation RP-322. These aircraft helped the USAAF train new pilots to fly a powerful and complex new fighter. A few Model 322 aircraft were later used as test modification platforms such as for smoke-laying canisters and dual air-dropped torpedoes. The RP-322 was a fairly fast aircraft (some of the fastest post-war racing P-38s were virtually identical in layout to the P-322-II)at low altitude and well suited as a trainer. The other positive result of the failed British/French order was to give the aircraft its name. Lockheed had originally dubbed the aircraft Atalanta in the company tradition of naming planes after mythological and celestial figures, but the RAF name won out.

== Operational Service ==

The first unit to receive P-38s was the 1st Fighter Group. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the unit joined the 14th Pursuit Group in San Diego to provide West Coast defense.

== Entry to the War ==

The first Lightning to see active service was the F-4 version, a P-38E in which the guns were replaced by four K17 cameras. They joined the 8th Photographic Squadron out of Australia on 4 April 1942. Three F-4s were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force in this theater for a short period beginning in September 1942.

On 29 May 1942, 25 P-38s began operating in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. The fighter's long range made it well-suited to the campaign over the almost 1,200 mile (2,000 km)–long island chain, and it would be flown there for the rest of the war. The Aleutians were one of the most rugged environments available for testing the new aircraft under combat conditions. More Lightnings were lost due to severe weather and other conditions than enemy action, and there were cases where Lightning pilots, mesmerized by flying for hours over gray seas under gray skies, simply flew into the water. On 9 August 1942, two P-38Es of the 343rd Fighter Group, Eleventh Air Force, at the end of a 1,000 mile (1,600 km) long-range patrol, happened upon a pair of Japanese Kawanishi H6K "Mavis" flying boats and destroyed them, making them the first Japanese aircraft to be shot down by Lightnings.

== European Theatre ==

After the Battle of Midway, the USAAF began redeploying fighter groups to Britain as part of Operation Bolero, and Lightnings of the 1st Fighter Group were flown across the Atlantic via Iceland. On 14 August, a P-38F and a P-40 operating out of Iceland shot down a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor over the Atlantic. This was the first Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed by the USAAF.

P-38 Lightnings had a number of lucky escapes, exemplified by the arrival of the 71st fighter squadron at Goxhill (Lincolnshire, England) in July 1942. The official handover ceremony was scheduled for mid-August, but on the day before the ceremony, Goxhill experienced its only air raid of the war. A single German bomber flew overhead and dropped a very well aimed bomb right on the intersection between the two newly concreted runways, but it didn’t explode and the aircraft were able to continue their mission. (As it turned out, the bomb could not be removed and, for the duration of the war, aircraft had to pass over it every time they took off.)

After 347 sorties with no enemy contact, the 1st, 14th and 82nd Fighter Groups were transferred to the 12th Air Force in North Africa as part of the force being built up for Operation Torch. On 19 November 1942, Lightnings escorted B-17s on a raid over Tunis. On 5 April 1943, 26 P-38Fs of the 82nd destroyed 31 enemy aircraft, helping to establish air superiority in the area, and earning it the German nickname "der Gabelschwanzteufel" – the Fork-Tailed Devil. The P-38 remained active in the Mediterranean for the rest of the war. It was in this theatre that the P-38 suffered its heaviest losses in the air. On 25 August 1943, 13 P-38s were shot down in a single sortie by Jagdgeschwader 53 Bf 109s without achieving a single kill. On 2 September ten P-38s were shot down, in return for a single kill, the 67-victory ace Franz Schiess (who was also the leading "Lightning" killer in the Luftwaffe with 17 destroyed).

Experiences over Germany had shown a need for long-range escort fighters to protect the Eighth Air Force's heavy bomber operations. The P-38Hs of the 55th Fighter Group were transferred to the Eighth in England in September 1943, and were joined by the 20th, 364th and 479th Fighter Groups soon after.

In the Mediterranean Theater, Italian pilots started to face P-38s from late 1942 and considered the type a formidable foe even compared to other lethal fighters including the Supermarine Spitfire. A small number of P-38s fell into the hands of German and Italian units and were subsequently tested and used in combat. Col. Tondi used a P-38, possibly an "E" variant, that landed in Sardinia due to a navigational error. Tondi claimed at least one B-24, downed on 11 August 1943. The P-38 eventually was acquired by Italy for postwar service.

The P-38 performed well in the ETO, but suffered frequent engine failures, due to the inadequate cooling system. Many of the aircraft's problems were addressed by the P-38J, but by September 1944, all but one of the Lightning groups in the Eighth Air Force had converted to the P-51. The Eighth did continue to operate the F-5 reconnaissance version with more success.

== Pacific theater ==

The P-38 was used most extensively and successfully in the Pacific theater, where it proved ideally suited, combining excellent performance with very long range. The P-38 was used in a variety of roles, especially escorting bombers at altitudes between 18-25,000ft. The P-38 was credited with destroying more Japanese aircraft than any other USAAF fighter. Freezing cockpits were not a problem at low altitude in the tropics. In fact, since there was no way to open a window while in flight as it caused buffeting by setting up turbulence through the tailplane, it was often too hot; pilots taking low altitude assignments would often fly stripped down to shorts, tennis shoes, and parachute. While the P-38 could not out-maneuver the Mitsubishi Zero and most other Japanese fighters, its speed and rate of climb gave American pilots the option of choosing to fight or run, and its focused firepower was even more deadly to lightly-armored Japanese warplanes than to the Germans'. The concentrated, parallel stream of bullets allowed aerial victory at much longer distances than fighters carrying wing guns. It is therefore ironic that Dick Bong, the United States' highest scoring World War II air ace (40 victories solely in P-38s), would fly directly at his targets to make sure he hit them (as he himself acknowledged his poor shooting ability), in some cases flying through the debris of his target (and on one occasion colliding with an enemy aircraft which was claimed as a "probable" victory). The twin Allison engines performed admirably in the Pacific.

On 2-4 March 1943, P-38s flew top cover for Fifth Air Force and Australian bombers and attack-planes during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, a crushing defeat for the Japanese. Two P-38 aces from the 39th Fighter Squadron were killed on the second day of the battle: Bob Faurot and Hoyt "Curley" Eason (a veteran with five victories who had trained hundreds of pilots, including Dick Bong).

General George C. Kenney, commander of the USAAF Fifth Air Force operating in New Guinea, could not get enough P-38s, though since they were replacing serviceable but inadequate P-39s and P-40s, this might seem like guarded praise. Lightning pilots began to compete in racking up scores against Japanese aircraft.

== Isoroku Yamamoto ==

The Lightning figured in one of the most significant operations in the Pacific theater, the interception, on 18 April 1943, of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the architect of Japan's naval strategy in the Pacific including the attack on Pearl Harbor. When American codebreakers found out that he was flying to Bougainville Island to conduct a front-line inspection, 16 P-38G Lightnings were sent on a long-range fighter-intercept mission, flying 435 mi (700 km) from Guadalcanal at heights from 10-50 ft (3-15 m) above the ocean to avoid detection. The Lightnings met Yamamoto's two Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" fast bomber transports and six escorting Zeros just as they arrived. The first Betty crashed in the jungle and the second ditched near the coast. Two Zeros were also claimed by the American fighters with the loss of one P-38. Japanese searchers found Yamamoto's body at the jungle crash site the next day.

== Service record ==

The P-38's service record shows mixed results, but usually because of misinformation. P-38s have been described as being harder to fly than single-engined planes, but this was because of inadequate training in the first few months of the war. The P-38's engine troubles at high altitudes only occurred with the Eighth Air Force. One reason for this was the inadequate cooling systems of the G and H models; the improved P-38 J and L had tremendous success flying out of Italy into Germany at all altitudes. Up until the -J-25 variant, P-38s were easily avoided by German fighters because of the lack of dive flaps to counter compressibility in dives. German fighter pilots not wishing to fight would perform the first half of a Split S and continue into steep dives because they knew the Lightnings would be reluctant to follow.

On the positive side, having two engines was a built-in insurance policy. Many pilots made it safely back to base after having an engine fail en route or in combat. On March 3, 1944, the first Allied fighters reached Berlin on a frustrated escort mission. Lt. Col. Jack Jenkins of 55FG led the group of P-38H pilots, arriving with only half his force after flak damage and engine trouble took their toll. On the way in to Berlin, Jenkins reported one rough-running engine and one good one, causing him to wonder if he'd ever make it back. The B-17s he was supposed to escort never showed up, having turned back at Hamburg. Jenkins and his wingman were able to drop tanks and outrun enemy fighters to return home with three good engines between them.

In the European Theatre of Operations (ETO), P-38s made 130,000 sorties with a loss of 1.3% overall, comparing favorably with ETO P-51s which posted a 1.1% loss, considering that the P-38s were vastly outnumbered and suffered from poorly thought-out tactics. The majority of the P-38 sorties were made in the period prior to Allied air superiority in Europe when pilots fought against a very determined and skilled enemy. Lt. Colonel Mark Hubbard, a vocal critic of the aircraft, rated it third best Allied fighter in Europe. The Lightning's greatest virtues were long range, heavy payload, high speed, fast climb, and concentrated firepower. The P-38 was a formidable interceptor and attack aircraft and, in the hands of any pilot, dangerous in air-to-air combat.

In the Pacific theater, the P-38 downed over 1,800 Japanese aircraft, with more than 100 pilots becoming aces by downing five or more enemy. American fuel supplies contributed to a better engine performance and maintenance record, and range was increased with leaner mixtures. In the second half of 1944, the P-38L pilots out of Dutch New Guinea were flying 950 miles (1,530 km), fighting for 15 minutes and returning to base Such long legs were invaluable until the P-47N and P-51D entered service.

== Postwar operations ==

The end of the war left the USAAF with thousands of P-38s rendered obsolete by the jet age. One hundred late-model P-38L and F-5 Lightnings were acquired by Italy through an agreement dated April 1946. Delivered, after refurbishing, at the rate of one per month, they finally were all sent to the AMI by 1952. The Lightnings served in 4 Stormo and other units including 3 Stormo, flying reconnaissance over the Balkans, ground attack, naval cooperation and air superiority missions. Due to unfamiliarity in operating heavy fighters, old engines, and pilot errors, a large number of P-38s were lost in at least 30 accidents, many of them fatal. Despite this, many Italian pilots liked the P-38 because of its excellent visibility on the ground and stability at takeoff. The Italian P-38s were phased out in 1956; none survived the inevitable scrapyard.

Surplus P-38s were also used by other foreign air forces with a dozen sold to Honduras and fifteen retained by China. Six F-5s and two unarmed black two-seater P-38s were operated by PRD forces based in Cuba in 1947. The majority of wartime Lightnings present in the continental U.S. at the end of the war were put up for sale for US$1,200 apiece; the rest were scrapped. P-38s in distant theaters of war were bulldozed into piles and abandoned or scrapped; very few avoided that fate.

Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier was among those who bought a Lightning, choosing a P-38J model and painting it red to make it stand out as an air racer and stunt flyer. Lefty Gardner, former B-24 and B-17 pilot and associate of the Confederate Air Force, bought a mid-1944 P-38L-1-LO that had been modified into an F-5G. Gardner painted it white with red and blue trim and named it White Lightnin'; he reworked its turbo systems and intercoolers for optimum low-altitude performance and gave it P-38F style air intakes for better streamlining. P-38s were popular contenders in the air races from 1946 through 1949, with brightly colored Lightnings making screaming turns around the pylons at Reno and Cleveland.

F-5s were bought by aerial survey companies and employed for mapping. From the 1950s on, the use of the Lightning steadily declined, and only a little more than two dozen still exist, with few still flying. One example is a P-38L owned by the Lone Star Flight Museum in Galveston, Texas, painted in the colors of Charles MacDonald's Putt Putt Maru. Two other examples are F-5Gs which were owned and operated by Kargl Aerial Surveys in 1946, and are now located in Chino, California at Yanks Air Museum, and in McMinnville, Oregon at Evergreen Aviation Museum.

==Variants==
*[[P-38G]] in AH
*[[P-38J]] in AH
*[[P-38L]] in AH

==See also==

*[[M2 Browning machine gun]]
*[[20 mm Hispano]]
*[[Allison V-1710]]''

[[Category:Aircraft of WWII]]

P-40E

2008-07-21T18:50:08Z

Trigger2: New image.

{{AHII Aircraft pagesections}}
{{Infobox Aircraft
|name =P-40E
|image =
|type =Fighter/attacker
|variantof =[[P-40]]
|country =United States
|manufacturer =Curtiss-Wright
|crew =Single-seat
|wingspan =37.33 ft (11.38 m)
|length =31.67 ft (9.66 m)
|height =12.33 ft (3.76 m)
|internalfuel =
}}
__TOC__
==The {{PAGENAME}} in World War II==

===Development===

===Unit Deployment===

===External Links===

<div style="clear:right;background-color:#F3F3E0;padding:1em;border:1px solid #999">
{{Infobox AH Aircraft
|name =P-40E Warhawk
|image =Curtiss P-40E Warhawk 2 USAF.jpg
|type =Fighter/attacker
|variantof =[[P-40]]
|crew =Single-seat
|loadout1-1 =6x .50cal MG, 235 rounds/gun
|loadout1-2 =
|loadout2-1 =
|loadout2-2 =
|options1 =1x 500lb bomb, or 1x 75 gallon drop tank
|options2 =
|options3 =
|options4 =
|options5 =
|options6 =
|options7 =
|earliestMA =EW
|perkcost =0
|LWENY =30
|carrier =no
}}

==The {{PAGENAME}} in Aces High II==

Not a common aircraft in the main arena, the P-40E is just a little too out-classed from the typically most popular rides. It has a very thin margin for error and you need to be on top of your game if you want to fly one successfully because any hesitation is bad news. That's not to say the P-40E isn't dangerous, far from it. If you can pack a little excess altitude into the fight to account for your poor speed and acceleration then watch out, you can show good performance in most other areas and cause quite a bit of havoc. Just be ready to fly very smart though, not over-commit, and know when it's time to egress and build back a little bit of energy. The P-40E can be great fun though, a number of people like to take the P-40E out for a spin from time to time.

===Engine Power===

Engine power got a big boost over the [[P-40B|B model]], though is still pretty bad. Top cruise speed at sea-level is 282mph (vs. 276mph for the B model) but the E model also has WEP, adding 15mph more when used, giving a 297mph sprint speed. Increases in altitude can improve the situation by about 2.5-3mph/1,000ft with a top speed of around 340mph at 15K (350mph with WEP). Notice how low that altitude is for a top speed, the P-40E is definitely a medium altitude or lower aircraft, it does not perform well at higher altitudes. Climb rate is pretty good, 3,100ft/minute, not out of class for a lot of rides but use of WEP is very important to maximize climb. Acceleration is dreadful at any altitude, usually in the bottom 5 of all fighters, so never consider trying to out-accelerate anyone. Fuel duration is very good, 36 minutes on internal fuel with the option to extend that by another 17 minutes with an external drop tank. That gives a nice combination for flexibility yet long range, or can conversely be used to take off with less internal fuel and carry a drop tank, enabling you to lighten up quickly.

===Aces High II Performance Charts===
''speed chart''
''climb chart''

===Firepower===

The P-40E is well armed, at least as good as a majority of aircraft in the game. Three .50 cal machine guns are mounted in tight proximity in each wing, giving a total of six, but with only 235 rounds/gun. This is a good setup, common to several US aircraft, and provides a reasonable hitting power with easy ballistics and high rate of fire. Total ammunition load is certainly a bit low, making you conserve your ammunition a bit, but once you have someone in the cross-hairs they are going to quickly know you are there and be concerned. Set your convergence as with any other similar aircraft for consistency's sake but whether you set them all to a point, or whether you create a small zone convergence, is up to you. Consider that in most cases you may have to keep your guns on target a bit longer than if you have been flying a cannon armed bird for a while, the difference is noticeable, but if you are used to .50s then you can appreciate their ease of use. If you can, fire short bursts and short-medium ranges for best effect.

===Maneuverability===

The P-40E and B models both feel very similar though the B turns possibly a tiny fraction better (the E model picked up 1,000lbs or weight and no increase in wing area so it would seem reasonable). Overall the P-40E is a little more stable for shooting and a bit more pointable, possibly in part due to repositioning the weight of the guns to the wings from the cowl. You do have to be careful though, it seems the P-40s both have nasty tendancies to enter spins as this is one of the few planes that appears able to "get away" from you if pushed too far. Flat spins, upright and inverted, are entirely possible and difficult to recover from in the P-40. Turn-rate seems average, don't push your luck against a good turner but don't be too afraid against a bad one. Be careful of vertical maneuvering though, someone who ropes you in a climbing turn can be big trouble though you can probably hang in there a lot longer than if you were in the P-40B. Dive control is excellent though the P-40 starts to suffer a bit in roll above 450mph. The general controls are pretty heavy at 500mph though right through 550mph there remains enough control authority to recover from most situations pretty easily. The airframe seems strong to flight stresses though not necessarily to damage from gunfire.

===Fighting in the {{PAGENAME}}===

The P-40E can be enjoyable to fly from time to time, particularly when bringing it to a lower-intensity fight or one where you know you can pick my spots a bit better. In that setting it can be pretty effective and still survive without too much trouble. Usually you do feel that you're pushing yourself a little more though to seal up kills as every mistake you make is amplified slightly so you simply need to fly at a higher quality level.

The biggest issue with the P-40E is lack of engine performance, specifically in speed or ability to replace energy. This tends to form the basis for the offensive and defensive use of the aircraft. When flying a P-40E, build up some energy before you enter the fight, either climbing for a while or coming in at the highest cruise speed possible, saving your WEP until you really need it. The P-40E does get better at medium altitudes so try and start there and work your way down, spending your altitude as you need it. Get out before you reach the ground, setting a floor value after which you will leave, reposition, and come back. The P-40E makes a good BnZ'r as it has good ride at most speeds and sufficient firepower to damage aircraft with short shots. You can't expect instant cannon type performance but knocking off pieces with a good shot can really make the fight easier in the long run. Don't plan on extended turning fights because they can quickly bleed you out of energy that you can't easily replace. If you can get a quick situation where you saddle up though that is best, you can usually finish off most aircraft given a reasonable ranged shot with a second or so on target. Don't waste ammunition though, you don't have a terrific amount and you'd hate to run out when you actually have a quality shot.

Defensively, the P-40E is not a good escaper, for lack of a better term. You need to get out a little earlier than on some aircraft or never get overcommitted in the first place. Diving away can be fine as long as you have the altitude you need and get a good head start. The P-40E is not a great accelerator, even in a dive, so many aircraft can easily catch you if they start their dives at the same time as you do. Extreme speed dives are OK, the P-40E can handle just about any speed you can throw at it although the lower you get the less performance you actually have after you've blown your speed. The P-40E has nice direct handling though so most defensive maneuvers can be reasonably easy to perform at a quality level. Don't get hung up trying to climb with anyone though or chasing people in the vertical, that tends to leave the P-40E hung out to dry.

===Fighting against the {{PAGENAME}}===

While the P-40E is significantly more dangerous than the B model, it still can be beaten reasonably easily. You do have to respect the better climb and firepower of the P-40E though, it can quickly make you pay for being sloppy but could should be considered as only an average or worse performer.

Always try and keep your speed high enough to avoid a P-40E. That gives you lots of options in the vertical and ways to build separation quickly. Against a majority of planes you are likely to fly, you will still have a 40mph advantage over a P-40E in level flight. If the P-40E has been engaged in a long fight already there is even a chance that he will be low on WEP and you could have much more. Climbing up to higher P-40Es is not too difficult though it's usually smart to move away from the battle a bit, climb, then come back. The P-40E still doesn't tend to have a lot of roaming power to chase people around the sky. Many P-40 pilots will be a bit impatient though and over-commit to the first attack them make. A strange issue, a lot of P-40E pilots become frustrated by the longer transit/climb times to get to the fight (and watching everyone around them pass by) so they get over-anxious and immediately dive on the first enemy they see (usually also having pretty bad tunnel vision). Try and sneak up on the P-40 if you can, the lack of level speed and a somewhat restricted rear view can make this fairly easy.

If attacked, never give up shots if you can help it. The icon of the P-40B and E are the same but the P-40E has the same firepower as a P-51D so respect it the same way. Identifying which model you are up against is useful but be sure to respect both models and 90% of the P-40s you meet are likely to be the E model, not the B. Usually you will find P-40s working the edges of the fight and diving in at great speed from higher altitudes. Avoid and try to move away from them, building as much separation as you can. P-40s are not good at closing distances unless they have altitude to use for speed. Try to bleed the P-40 out of energy if you can or use vertical to maintain your own energy. High speed dives may work but the P-40s in general are excellent divers so can probably follow you given a chance. Usually the dive can build enough speed to hold separation until low altitudes where your overall advantage in top speed plays out. Lots of people simply dive away from a P-40 and then extend at low levels and high speeds. The P-40E can't generally catch you in the dive, though may match you, and once low he is out of options. Sometimes you can even reverse or zoom climb after allowing the P-40 to slow a bit, then come back as almost an immediate aggressor to the fight. P-40s do tend to draw quite a bit of "easy kill" attention though and often you can find 4 or 5 guys chasing a P-40 rather than chase a Spitfire.

===External Links===
[http://members.shaw.ca/soda_p/models.htm Soda's Aircraft Evaluations]

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[[Category:Aircraft of WWII]]
[[Category:Aircraft of Aces High II]]

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The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft.

{{Infobox Aircraft
|name =p51 Mustang
|image =Bott4.jpg
|type =Fighter (Persuit)
|variantof =
|country =United States
|manufacturer =
|crew =Single Seat
|wingspan =
|length =
|height =
|internalfuel =
}}

== Overview ==
The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority from early 1944. It also saw limited service against the Japanese in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter, but was relegated to a ground attack role when superseded by jet fighters early in the conflict. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s.

As well as being economical to produce, the Mustang was a fast, well-made and highly durable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and (the P-51D) were armed with six of the aircraft version of the .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns.

After World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. The Mustang's reputation was such that, in the mid-1960s, Ford Motor Company's Designer John Najjar proposed the name for a new youth-oriented coupe after the fighter

== Genesis ==

In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who, as the "Air Member for Development and Production", was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938, Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee"), and one of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time the choice was very limited: none of the U.S. aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply.

North American Aviation (NAA) was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF, but were otherwise underutilized. NAA President "Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss.

Kindelberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time than it would take to set up a production line for the P-40. By now the executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP), Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300

== Development and Design ==

The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design followed the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds.[4] Another was the use of a new radiator design (one Curtiss had been unable to make work) that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect". Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, it used the GALCIT 10-foot wind tunnel at Cal Tech. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although historians and researchers dismiss the allegation of stolen technology; such claims are likely moot in any event, as North American had purchased Curtiss’ complete set of P-40 and XP-46 wind tunnel data and flight test reports for US$56,000.[5]

While the United States Army Air Corps could block any sales it considered detrimental or not in the interest of the United States, the NA-73 represented a special case. In order to ensure deliveries were uninterrupted, an arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its aircraft in exchange for NAA providing two free examples to the USAAC for evaluation.

The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed — an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .30 caliber Browning (7.62 mm) and two .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) machineguns in the wings and two .50 M2s in the chin.

== Allison-engined mustangs ==

'''Mustang I/P51'''

It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was markedly reduced at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the single speed, single stage supercharger of the Allison V-1710 engine, where power diminished rapidly above the critical altitude rating. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric; these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft, in particular, the Air Corp's four-engine bombers. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simpler supercharger would suffice. The turbocharger proved impractical in the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate supercharger available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters, using the same powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 ft and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British aircraft's more powerful engine.[6]

The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters, named Mustang I by the British (the name being selected by an anonymous member of the Purchasing Commission). Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAC for evaluation were designated XP-51.[7] About 20 Mustang Is were delivered to the RAF, making their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but were thought to be of limited value as fighters due to their poor performance above 15,000 ft.

A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft, designated NA-91 by North American, were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named Apache, although this was soon dropped and the RAF name, Mustang, adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the wing-mounted machine guns were removed and replaced with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano Mk II cannon.

A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as F-6A photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with Packard-built Merlin engines mounted behind the cockpit, in the fashion of the P-39.[8] This was identified as Model NA-101 by North American and XP-78 by the USAAF, later redesignated XP-51B.

'''A-36 Apache/Invader'''

At the same time, the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack aircraft and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache, which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

== Merlin Engined mustangs ==

'''P51B/C'''

In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang and found its performance inadequate at higher altitudes. As such it was to be used to replace the Tomahawk in Army Cooperation Command squadrons but the commanding officer was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. The Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid R. Freeman, lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the U.S. 8th Air Force in Britain.[9]

The high-altitude performance improvement was astonishing: the Mustang X (AM208) reached 433 mph (697 km/h) at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft.[10]After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang, with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison, was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C, B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943. The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B reached 441 mph/709.70 km/h (exactly two-thirds supersonic speed at altitude) at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and the subsequent extended range made possible by the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang to be introduced as a bomber escort.

P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI).

Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943.

A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C

'''P51D/K'''

One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been recognized by the British after the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods." Eventually all Mk IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods.

A better solution to the problem was the "teardrop" or "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit, resulting in substantially improved vision to the rear. This led to the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang.

A common misconception is that the cutting down of the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability that required the addition of a dorsal fin to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both earlier Bs and Cs and subsequent D/K models also experienced low speed handling problems that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. One report stated:

"Unless a dorsal fin is installed on the P-51B, P-51C and P-51D airplanes, a snap roll may result when attempting a slow roll. The horizontal stabilizer will not withstand the effects of a snap roll. To prevent recurrence the stabilizer should be reinforced in accordance with T.O. 01-60J-18 dated 8 April 1944 and a dorsal fin should be installed. Dorsal fin kits are being made available to overseas activities"

While some existing aircraft do not have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank — reducing the need for the dorsal fin.

Ground crew arming the P-51 with six M2 machine guns and .50 caliber ammunitionAmong other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds each, and the others had 270 rounds, for a total of 1,880. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at the time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to ten rockets per plane.

The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. By the time of the Korean war most F-51s were equipped with "uncuffed" Hamilton Standard propellers with wider, blunt tipped blades. The photo reconnaissance versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectively. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models.

The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in the theater. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models.

Concern over the USAAF's inability to escort B-29s all the way to mainland Japan resulted in the highly classified "Seahorse" project. In late 1944 Naval Aviator (and later test pilot) Bob Elder flew carrier suitability trials with a modified P-51D. The project was canceled after U.S. Marines secured the Japanese island of Iwo Jima and its airfields, making it possible for standard P-51D models to accompany B-29s all the way to the Japanese home islands and back. ("Fly Navy" - Phil Kaplan, page 51)

During 1945–48, P-51Ds were also built under licence in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation

== The "LightWeight" mustangs ==

'''XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J'''

The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by the British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost.

A subtle change made in the lightweight Mustangs was the use of an improved NACA 66 series airfoil and a slightly thinner wing than that used by earlier Mustangs.[12]

In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disc brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines.

A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production.

'''P51H'''

The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service.

The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost control with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h or Mach 0.74) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m).

The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:

P-51H-1-NA 44-64160 – 44-64179
P-51H-5-NA 44-64180 – 44-64459
P-51H-10-NA 44-64460 – 44-64714
Additional orders, already on the books, were cancelled. With the cutback in production, the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the U.S. Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity.

Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's next generation of jet-powered fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the first straight-winged variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing designs.

== Operational history ==

'''US operational service'''

At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective.

Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers too vulnerable, contrary to Giulio Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. Due to the high casualty rates, the Luftwaffe soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its raids over Germany.

Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it costly to continue such long-range raids without adequate fighter escort.

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European theater due to its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on more than even terms, but did not at the time have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single, well-understood, reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could accompany the bombers all the way to Germany and back.

Ferry pilot Florene Watson, Women Airforce Service Pilots, warms up a P-51Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task of escorting bombers all the way to the deepest targets, thus complementing the more numerous P-47s until sufficient Mustangs became available. The Eighth Air Force immediately began to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converted its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until by the end of the year 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang.[13]

Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid U.S. fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in fall 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.

Lt. Vernon R Richards, 374th FS, 361st FG. Early production P-51D-5-NA without tail fillet.Beginning in late February 1944 Eighth Air Force fighter units began systematic strafing attacks on German airfields that picked up in frequency and intensity throughout the spring with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy battlefield. In general these were conducted by units returning from escort missions, but beginning in March many groups also were assigned airfield attacks instead of bomber support. On April 15 VIII FC began Operation Jackpot, attacks on specific Luftwaffe fighter airfields, and on May 21 these attacks were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and rolling stock used by the Germans for movements of materiel and troops in missions dubbed "Chattanooga".[14] The P-51 also excelled at this mission, although losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially due to the vulnerability of the Mustang's cooling system to small arms hits. Like other fighters using liquid cooled engines, the Mustang's coolant system could be punctured by a hit from a single bullet.

The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency helped cripple the Luftwaffe's fighter force. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by summer 1944.

Chuck Yeager's P-51D-15-NA Glamorous Glennis III, is the aircraft in which the future test pilot achieved most of his 12.5 killsP-51s also distinguished themselves against advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51, but as all aircraft are, were vulnerable on take-off. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach. On 7 October 1944 Lt. Urban Drew, of the 365th Fighter Group, went one better. During a fighter sweep he surprised two Me 262s on take-off and shot them down. On the same day Hubert Zemke, now flying Mustangs, shot down what he thought was a Bf 109, only for the gun camera film to reveal a Me 262.[15] On 1 November 1944, the Mustang pilots once again demonstrated that the threat could be contained with numbers. While flying as escorts for B-17s, the 20th Fighter Group was attacked by a lone Me 262, which destroyed a solitary P-51. The Me 262 then attempted to attack the bombers, only to be cut off by a mixed formation of P-51s and P-47s. The Fighter Groups competed for the kill. Eventually a P-47 pilot of the 56th, and Mustang pilots Lt Gerbe and Groce of the 352nd Fighter Groups, shared the kill.[16]

The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 2520 aircraft.[17]

P-51Cs and Ds of 118 Tac/R Squadron, Laohwangping, China. June 1945. (Fred Poats photo).One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft claimed destroyed. This included 550 claimed in aerial combat and 466 claimed on the ground.[18]

In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. Martin Bowman reports that in the ETO Mustangs flew 213,873 sorties and lost 2,520 aircraft to all causes.[citation needed]

P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in close-support and escort missions as well as operating in the Tactical Photo Reconnaissance role.

[edit] Post-World War II

F-51 Mustang taxis through a puddle in Korea, laden with bombs and rocketsIn the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status.

In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG).

USAF F-51D dropping napalm on a target in North KoreaDuring the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea. With the aircraft being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load.

At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952.

West Virginia Air National Guard F-51D. Note: postwar "uncuffed" propeller unit.F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and Air National Guard throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was P-51D-30-NA Serial No. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia ANG in 1957. This aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is, however, painted as P-51D-15-NA Ser No. 44-15174.[19]

The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF dumped hundreds of P-51s out onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft both in the U.S. and overseas. In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes but were fitted with new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio fit, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger wing which could carry six 0.50-inch machine guns and a total of eight underwing hardpoints. Two 1000-pound bombs and six five-inch rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy, but carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang was a two-seat dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale to South American and Asian nations through the Military Assistance Program (MAP), they were delivered to the USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers (67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).[19]

The last U.S. military use of the F-51 was in 1968, when the U. S. Army employed a vintage F-51D (44-72990) as a chase aircraft for the Lockheed YAH-56 Cheyenne armed helicopter project. This aircraft was so successful that the Army ordered two F-51Ds from Cavalier in 1968 for use at Fort Rucker as chase planes. They were assigned the serials 68-15795 and 65-15796. These F-51s had wingtip fuel tanks and were unarmed. Following the end of the Cheyenne program, these two chase aircraft were used for other projects. One of them (68-15795) was fitted with a 106-mm recoilless rifle for evaluation of the weapon's value in attacking fortified ground targets.[20]

The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid 1980s with smaller air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally being retired by the Dominican Air Force (FAD) in 1984

'''Non-US service '''

The P-51 Mustang remained in service with more than 30 air forces after World War II; the last was retired from active service in the early 1980s. Here is a list of some of the countries that used the P-51 Mustang.

Argentina
[citation needed]
Australia

Australian P-51Ds in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, in 1947The first Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) unit to use Mustangs was No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which converted to them at its base in Italy in November 1944. The RAAF had also decided to replace its P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific Area with P-51s, and ordered a total of about 500 Mustangs, which were to be built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), the only non-U.S. production line. In 1944, 100 P-51Ds were shipped from the U.S. in kit form to inaugurate production at Fishermans Bend, in Melbourne. CAC assembled 80 of these under the designation CA-17/Mark 20, the remaining 20 being kept unassembled as spare parts.
CAC then produced 120 more P-51Ds on its own (reduced from an initial order for 170), which it designated CA-18/Mark 21, 22 or 23. (The RAAF used the serial number prefix A68 for all P-51s.) The Mk 22 was a photo reconnaissance variant and the Mk 23 had newer model British-made Merlin engines. In addition, 84 P-51Ks were also shipped direct to the RAAF from the USA. However, only 17 Mustangs reached the front line squadrons of the First Tactical Air Force by the time World War II ended in August 1945. The RAAF subsequently cancelled further orders for about 200 Mustangs. No. 77 Squadron RAAF also used P-51s extensively during the first years of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.[22]
Bolivia
Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.
Canada

Restored P-51D in the markings of No. 402 "City of Winnipeg" RCAF Auxiliary SquadronCanada had five squadrons equipped with Mustangs during World War II. RCAF No. 400, 414 and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk 1s (1942-1944) and nos. 441 and 442 flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945. Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular: No. 416 "Lynx" and no. 417 "City of Windsor" and six auxiliary fighter squadrons: no. 402 "City of Winnipeg," no. 403 "City of Calgary," no. 420 "City of London," no. 424 "City of Hamilton," no. 442 "City of Vancouver" and no. 443 "City of New Westminster." The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956; a number of special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.
China
Some of the P-51Cs and Ds were given to China by early 1945. Delivered from the U.S. 10th AF in India, those Mustangs were equipped to the 5th, 3rd and 4th FG of CAF to attack the Japanese targets in China. After the war, they were also used against the Chinese Communist Forces. When the Chinese Nationalist retreated from the Mainland, Many of them ended up in Taiwan when their pilots sided with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Further P-51s were acquired from the USAF and other sources. Some P-51s were subsequently lost to the Communist People's Liberation Army Air Force during the Nationalist retreat from the Chinese mainland.
Costa Rica
The Costa Rica Air Force flew four F-51s from 1955–64.
Cuba
Some reports claim that under the terms of the 1947 Rio Pact, Cuba was supplied with F-51D Mustangs. These reports appear to be erroneous. However, after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba's Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria illegally acquired three ex-civilian Mustangs reputedly being bought in Canada by envoys of Fidel Castro. The P-51 Mustangs did not enter service soon enough to see any action during the Cuban revolution. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Mustangs were damaged on the ground, and were repaired too late to participate in the fighting. They served with the Cuban air force until they were replaced with Russian-built equipment in the early 1960s.[23]
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (FAD) was the largest Latin American air force to employ the F-51D with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44 ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948 and a further Mustang obtained from an unknown source.[24] It was the last nation to have the F-51 Mustang in service, with some remaining in use as late as 1984.
El Salvador
The FAS purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual control Cavalier TF-51) featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service.
France
In late 1944, the first French unit began its transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service until the early 1950s when they were replaced by jet fighters.
Guatemala
Guatemala (FAG) had 30 P-51s in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.
Haiti
Haiti had four Mustangs when President Paul Eugène Magloire was in power between 1950 and 1956, with the last retired in 1973-74 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.[25]
Honduras
Seven Mustangs were acquired from private sources to fight in the so-called "Football War."[citation needed]
Indonesia
Indonesia acquired some F-51s from the departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949/1950. The Mustangs were used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF and RNZAF) forces during the Indonesian confrontation in the early 1960s. The last time Mustangs were to be deployed for military purposes was a shipment of six Cavalier II Mustangs (without tip tanks) delivered to Indonesia in 1972-1973, which were replaced in 1976.[26][27]
Israel
A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by Israel in 1948 for use in the War of Independence (1948) and quickly established themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and Nicaragua but were replaced by jets at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis, Operation Kadesh (1956). Reputedly, during this conflict, one daring Israeli pilot literally cut communications between Suez City and the Egyptian front lines by using his Mustang's propeller on the telephone wires.[28]
Italy
During the war, from 1943-45, Italian pilots faced an increasing number of Mustangs, but only in the last years were they the main threat, because P-38s and P-47s were still present in great numbers. Mustangs were generally quite superior to Italian fighters, both indigenous types and the Bf 109s given by Germany, but some Mustangs were lost as well in those aerial battles. No Italian pilot flew Mustangs before the end of the war.
Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds; deliveries were slowed by the Korean war, but between September 1947 and January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 51 Stormo (Wing) and some in schools and experimentals units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter, P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics. Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully utilized and several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated even compared to the other primary postwar Italian fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the Mustang began in summer 1958.[29]
Japan
The P-51C-11-NT "Evalina" marked as "278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) flown by 26th FS, 51st FG, was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly landed on Suchon Airfield in China which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft, roughly applied Hinomarus and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation centre (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.
Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force received 40 P-51s and flew them in the Indonesian conflict. When the conflict was over Indonesia received some of the ML-KNIL Mustangs.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (GN) gained 26 Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and used them until 1964.
New Zealand

P-51D in No. 3 (Canterbury) TAF livery, performing at 2007 Wings over Wairarapa airshowNew Zealand ordered 320 P-51 Mustangs as a partial replacement of its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theatre. Thirty were delivered in 1945 but the war ended before they entered service. The remainder were retained in the U.S. The 30 received were stored in their packing cases until 1950 when put into service with the New Zealand Territorial Air Force (TAF)'s Auckland , Wellington, Canterbury and Otago squadrons. The TAF was disbanded in 1957 and the Mustangs retired, one being retained by 42 Squadron for regular target towing duties, and the remainder being sold for scrap. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron. A Mustang is on display in the RNZAF Museum and three other privately owned Mustangs are airworthy in the country.[22]
Philippines

P-51 Mustangs of the Philippine Air Force circa 1950's. The PAF had problems with the plane's retracting rear wheel and finally modified the mechanism into a fixed "down" position even in flightThe Philippines acquired P-51 Mustangs after World War II. These became the backbone of the postwar Philippine Army Air Corps and Philippine Air Force and were used extensively during the Huk campaign, fighting against Communist insurgents. Mustangs were also the first aircraft of the Philippine air demonstration squadron, which was formed in 1953 and given the name "The Blue Diamonds" the following year.[30] The Mustangs were replaced by F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s.
Poland
During World War II, five Polish Air Force in Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June 1942) with Mustang Mk Is was Flight B of No. 309 Polish Army-Cooperation Squadron, followed by Flight A in March 1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was renamed No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1943, No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron received Mustangs Mk IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in No. 309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again renamed, as No. 309 Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements. Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned approximately 80 Mustangs Mk IIIs and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the U.S. government.[31]
Somalia
South Africa
The South African Air Force operated a number of Mustang Is and IIs (P-51As) in Italy and the Middle East during World War II. After VE-Day, these machines were soon struck off charge and scrapped. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952/1953.
South Korea
Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy air services during World War II as well as by U.S. advisers led by Major Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from U.S. and from South African stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union received at least 10 early-model Mustangs and tested them in combat. Some reports suggest that other Mustangs that were abandoned in Russia after the famous "shuttle missions" were repaired and used by the Soviet Air Force, but not in frontline service.
Sri Lanka
[citation needed]
Sweden
Sweden's Flygvapnet first recuperated four of the P-51s (two P-51Bs and two early P-51Ds) that had been diverted to Sweden during missions over Europe. In February 1945, Sweden purchased 50 P-51Ds designated J 26, which were delivered by American pilots in April and assigned to the F 16 wing at Uppsala as interceptors. In early 1946, the F 4 wing at Östersund was equipped with a second batch of 90 P-51Ds. A final batch of 21 airplanes was purchased in 1948. In all, 161 J 26s served in the Swedish Air Force during the late 1940s. About a dozen were modified for photo reconnaissance and re-designated S 26. A few of these aircraft participated in the top secret Swedish mapping of new Soviet military installations at the Baltic coast in 1946-47, a project that entailed many intentional violations of Soviet airspace. However, the Mustang could outdive any Soviet fighter of that era, so no S 26 was lost in these missions. The J 26s were replaced by De Havilland Vampires around 1950. The S 26s were replaced by S 29Cs in the early 1950s.

A restored Swiss Air Force P-51. Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force operated a few USAAF P-51s which had been impounded by Swiss authorities during World War II after the pilots were forced to land in neutral Switzerland. After the war, Switzerland also bought 130 P-51s for $4,000 each. They served until 1958.
United Kingdom
The RAF was the first air force to operate the P-51 which was originally designed to meet RAF requirements. The first P-51As (RAF Mustang Is) entered service in 1941, wearing the standard RAF fighter markings. Due to poor high-altitude performance, the Mustangs were soon transferred to Army co-operation and fighter reconnaissance duties. On 27 July 1942, sixteen RAF Mustangs undertook their first long-range reconnaissance mission over Germany. During Operation Jubilee, the Dieppe Raid (19 August 1942), four British and Canadian Mustang squadrons, including No. 26 Squadron RAF saw action. By 1943/1944, British Mustangs were used extensively to seek out V-1 sites. The final RAF Mustang I and Mustang II machines were struck off charge in 1945. The RAF operated several Mustang III (P-51B/C) machines, the first units converting to the type in late 1943/1944. Mustang III units were operational until the end of World War II, though many units had already converted to the Mustang IV (P-51D/K). RAF pilots preferred the Mustang III (with Malcolm hood), but the RAF re-equipped with Mustang IVs. As the Mustang was a Lend-Lease type, all aircraft still on RAF charge at the end of the war were either returned to the USAAF "on paper" or retained by the RAF for scrapping. The final Mustangs were retired from RAF use in 1947.
Uruguay
Uruguay (FAU) used 25 F-51D Mustangs from 1950 to 1960 — some were subsequently sold to Bolivia.
Venezuela
Venezuela (FAV) used only a sole Mustang which was acquired from another Latin American country

'''p51's and civil aviation'''

Many P-51s were sold as surplus after the war, often for as little as $1,500. Some were sold to former wartime fliers or other aficionados for personal use, while others were modified for air racing.[32]

One of the most prominent Mustangs involved in air racing was a surplus P-51C purchased by Paul Mantz, a film stunt pilot. The aircraft was modified by creating a "wet wing", sealing the wing to create a giant fuel tank in each wing, which eliminated the need for fuel stops or drag-inducing drop tanks. This Mustang, called "Blaze of Noon", came in first in the 1946 and 1947 Bendix Air Races, second in the 1948 Bendix and third in the 1949 Bendix. He also set a U.S. coast-to-coast record in 1947. The Mantz Mustang was sold to Charles F. Blair Jr (future husband of Maureen O'Hara) and re-named "Excaliber III". Blair used it to set a New York-to-London record in 1951. Later that same year he flew from Norway to Fairbanks, Alaska, via the North Pole, proving that navigation via sun sights was possible over the magnetic north pole region. For this feat, he was awarded the Harmon Trophy and the Air Force was forced to change its thoughts on a possible Soviet air strike from the north. This Mustang now resides in the National Air and Space Museum at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

The most prominent firm to convert Mustangs to civilian use was Trans-Florida Aviation, later renamed Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which produced the Cavalier Mustang. Modifications included a taller tailfin and wingtip tanks. A number of conversions included a Cavalier Mustang specialty: a "tight" second seat added in the space formerly occupied by the military radio and fuselage fuel tank.

P-51D of the CAF's Dixie WingIronically, in the late 1960s and early 1970s when the United States Department of Defense wished to supply aircraft to South American countries and later Indonesia, for close air support and counter insurgency, it turned to Cavalier to return some of their civilian conversions back to updated military specifications.

The P-51 is perhaps the most sought after of all warbirds on the civilian market; the average price usually exceeds $1 million, even for only partially restored aircraft.[33] Some privately owned P-51s are still flying, often associated with organizations such as the Commemorative Air Force (formerly the Confederate Air Force).

== Variants ==

NA-73X
The initial prototype was designated the NA-73X by the manufacturer, North American Aviation.

Mustang I
The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters. This aircraft was named Mustang I by the British. A second British contract for 300 more Mustang Is was assigned a model number of NA-83 by North American.
XP-51
Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAF were designated XP-51.
P-51
In September 1940, 150 aircraft designated NA-91 by North American were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named the Apache although this name was dropped early-on for Mustang. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. They were equipped with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano-Suiza Mk II cannon instead of machine guns. A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as photo reconnaissance aircraft and designated F-6A. The British would fit a number of Mustang I fighters with photographic reconnaissance equipment as well. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with the Packard-built Merlin engine and were designated by North American as model NA-101 and by the USAAF initially as the XP-78, but re-designated quickly to XP-51B.
In early 1942, the USAAF ordered a lot of 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A. North American assigned the aircraft the model number NA-97. This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

Following the A-36A order the USAAF ordered 310 model NA-99 fighters that were designated P-51A by the USAAF. and Mustang II by the RAF. A number of this lot of aircraft were equipped with K-24 cameras and designated F-6B. All these models of the Mustang were equipped with Allison V-1710 engines except the prototype XP-51B.

Beginning with the model NA-102 Mustang the Packard built Merlin V-1650 engine replaced the Allison. In the summer of 1943 Mustang production was begun at a new plant in Dallas, Texas as well as at the existing facility in Inglewood, California. The model NA-102 was produced as the P-51B in Inglewood while the NA-103 as the P-51C was produced at Dallas. The RAF named these models Mustang III. Again, a number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo Reconnaissance and designated F-6C.

The prototypes of the bubble canopy change were designated model NA-106 by North American and P-51D by the USAAF. The production version, while retaining the P-51D designation, was assigned a model number NA-109 by North American. The "D" became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A variation of the P-51D equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller was designated the P-51K. The photo versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectfully. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the "D" model and Mustang IVA to "K" models.

As the USAAF specifications required airframe design to a higher load factor than that used by British for their fighters, consideration was given to re-designing the Mustang to the lower British requirements in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft and thus improve performance. In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to do the re-design as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. The designation XP-51F was assigned for prototypes powered with V-1650 engines and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disk brakes, and a larger canopy. A third prototype was added to the development that was powered by an Allison V-1710 engine. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. As the engine was insufficiently developed the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. A small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V.

The final production Mustang, the P-51H embodied the experience gained in the development of the lightweight XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, model NA-126 and with minor differences NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak which was probably the fastest production piston engine fighter to see service. The P-51H used the Merlin V-1659-9 engine, equipped with Simmons automatic boost control and water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2,218 horsepower. Some of the weight savings inherited from the XP-51F and XP-51G were invested in lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, greatly reducing the tendency to yaw, and in restoring the fuselage fuel tank. The canopy was changed back to more nearly resemble the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was improved. The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan and 2,000 were ordered to be built at the Inglewood plant. With the solution to the problem of yaw control, the P-51H was now considered a suitable candidate for testing as an aircraft carrier based fighter; but with the end of the war, the testing was cut short, and production was halted after 555 aircraft were built. Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat. One aircraft was given to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was re-serialled BuNo 09064 and used by the Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, due to the lack of experience with durability of the lighter airframe under combat conditions as well as limited numbers in the USAF inventory.[35]

With the cutback in production the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

== Production ==

Source: U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909[36]
NA.73X Prototype: One built
P-51: 150 built
P-51A: 310 built at Inglewood, California
P-51B: 1,988 built at Inglewood
P-51C: 1,750 built at Dallas, Texas
P-51D: A total of 8,156 were built: 6,502 at Inglewood, 1,454 at Dallas and 200 by CAC at Fisherman's Bend, Australia
XP-51F: Three built
XP-51G: Two built
P-51H: 555 built at Inglewood
XP-51J: Two built

P-51D being assembled, Inglewood CA.[37]P-51K: 1,500 built
P-51L: None built - cancelled
P-51M: One built at Dallas
Mustang I: 620 built
Mustang III: 852 built
Mustang IV: 281 built
Mustang IVA: 595 built
Total number built: 15,875 (among American fighter aircraft second only to the P-47 Thunderbolt)

== Survivors ==

Among the 287 current airframes and the 154 "flying" Mustangs are the following:[38]

XP-51 41-038 Original prototype on display, Oshkosh
P-51A-1NA Mustang in storage for restoration, Kermit Weeks, Polk City FL
P-51A-10-NA Mustang now flying and marked as "Miss Virginia" Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca [39]
A-36 Mustang Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51C-10-NT Mustang flying as "Ina the Macon Belle" of Lt. Lee Archer, the only 5 victory ace of the "Tuskegee Airmen" 332nd FG, 302nd FS. Kermit Weeks, Tamiami FL.
P-51D Mustang, Olympic flight museum, Olympia, Wa. In flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, IN. In flying condition, served with the North Dakota, Alabama, and Kentucky Air National Guards.
P-51 Mustang (Mk IV), Vintage Wings of Canada, Gatineau, Québec.
P-51D Mustang, N167F, Scandinavia Historic Flight, painted as "Old Crow", the aircraft of one of the 8th AF aces, Col. Clarence E. "Bud" Anderson of the 357th Fighter Group, 363rd Fighter Squadron.[40]
P-51D Mustang, SE-BIL, "It's About Time", based in Sweden.[41]
P-51D Mustang, (P-51D-20NA) Cavanaugh Flight Museum, Addison, Texas. The aircraft is in flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, 'Spam Can' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51D Mustang, 'Wee Willy II' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
"Ole Yeller", flown by John Bagley at an airshow in Rexburg, ID.P-51D Mustang Marked as under restoration Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51H Mustang 44-64415 Flying, Whittington Bros, Fort Lauderdale FL
P-51D "Old Yeller" - Formerly owned by Bob Hoover. In flying condition. Currently owned by John Bagley of Rexburg, ID and displayed at the Legacy Flight Museum (http://www.legacyflightmuseum.com/).
CA-17 Mk.20 A68-1, flying, Wiley Sanders, Troy AL
CA-18 Kk.21 A68-104, VH-BOB, flying, Bob Eastgate, Australia
P-51D Mustang, G-BTCD S/NUMBER 44-73419 - Painted to resemble 44-13704, "Ferocious Frankie", Operated by the Old Flying Machine Company, Duxford, Cambridgshire, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDDGHC9Y1F4
P-51D Mustang, G-SIJJ, 44-072035 - painted to resemble 4464076 "Jumpin Jacques", Operated by the Hangar 11 Collection, North Weald, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROuCJ9REAGw

== Specifications ==

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 32 ft 3 in (9.83 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 13 ft 8 in (4.17 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,635 lb (3,465 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,200 lb (4,175 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 12,100 lb (5,490 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-7 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,695 hp (1,265 kW)
Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0163
Drag area: 3.80 ft² (0.35 m²)
Aspect ratio: 5.83
Performance

Maximum speed: 437 mph (703 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Cruise speed: 362 mph (580 km/h)
Stall speed: 100 mph (160 km/h)
Range: 1,650 mi (2,755 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,900 ft (12,770 m)
Rate of climb: 3,200 ft/min (16.3 m/s)
Wing loading: 39 lb/ft² (192 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (300 W/kg)
Lift-to-drag ratio: 14.6
Recommended Mach limit 0.8
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns; 400 rounds per gun for the two inboard guns; 270 per outboard gun
2 hardpoints for up to 2,000 lb (907 kg)
10 × 5 in (127 mm) rockets

[edit] P-51H Mustang
Data from The Great Book of Fighters[42]

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 11 ft 1 in (3.38 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,040 lb (3,195 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,500 lb (4,310 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 11,500 lb (5,215 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-9 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,380 hp (1,030 kW) military, 2,218 hp (1,655 kW) WEP
Performance

Maximum speed: 487 mph (784 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Range: 1,160 mi (1,865 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,600 ft (12,680 m)
Rate of climb: 3,300 ft/min (16.8 m/s)
Wing loading: 40.4 lb/ft² (197.4 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (385 W/kg)
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns with 1,880 total rounds (400 rounds for each on the inner pair, and 270 rounds for each of the outer two pair), or 4 of the same guns with 1,600 total rounds (400 per gun).

P51 Mustang

2008-06-30T00:13:15Z

Trigger2:

The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft.

{{Infobox Aircraft
|Name =p51 Mustang
|Image =Bott4.jpg
|Type =Fighter (Persuit)
|Variantof =
|Country =United States
|Manufacturer =
|Crew =Single Seat
|Wingspan =
|length =
|height =
|internalfuel =
}}

== Overview ==
The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority from early 1944. It also saw limited service against the Japanese in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter, but was relegated to a ground attack role when superseded by jet fighters early in the conflict. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s.

As well as being economical to produce, the Mustang was a fast, well-made and highly durable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and (the P-51D) were armed with six of the aircraft version of the .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns.

After World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. The Mustang's reputation was such that, in the mid-1960s, Ford Motor Company's Designer John Najjar proposed the name for a new youth-oriented coupe after the fighter

== Genesis ==

In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who, as the "Air Member for Development and Production", was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938, Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee"), and one of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time the choice was very limited: none of the U.S. aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply.

North American Aviation (NAA) was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF, but were otherwise underutilized. NAA President "Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss.

Kindelberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time than it would take to set up a production line for the P-40. By now the executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP), Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300

== Development and Design ==

The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design followed the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds.[4] Another was the use of a new radiator design (one Curtiss had been unable to make work) that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect". Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, it used the GALCIT 10-foot wind tunnel at Cal Tech. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although historians and researchers dismiss the allegation of stolen technology; such claims are likely moot in any event, as North American had purchased Curtiss’ complete set of P-40 and XP-46 wind tunnel data and flight test reports for US$56,000.[5]

While the United States Army Air Corps could block any sales it considered detrimental or not in the interest of the United States, the NA-73 represented a special case. In order to ensure deliveries were uninterrupted, an arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its aircraft in exchange for NAA providing two free examples to the USAAC for evaluation.

The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed — an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .30 caliber Browning (7.62 mm) and two .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) machineguns in the wings and two .50 M2s in the chin.

== Allison-engined mustangs ==

'''Mustang I/P51'''

It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was markedly reduced at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the single speed, single stage supercharger of the Allison V-1710 engine, where power diminished rapidly above the critical altitude rating. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric; these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft, in particular, the Air Corp's four-engine bombers. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simpler supercharger would suffice. The turbocharger proved impractical in the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate supercharger available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters, using the same powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 ft and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British aircraft's more powerful engine.[6]

The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters, named Mustang I by the British (the name being selected by an anonymous member of the Purchasing Commission). Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAC for evaluation were designated XP-51.[7] About 20 Mustang Is were delivered to the RAF, making their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but were thought to be of limited value as fighters due to their poor performance above 15,000 ft.

A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft, designated NA-91 by North American, were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named Apache, although this was soon dropped and the RAF name, Mustang, adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the wing-mounted machine guns were removed and replaced with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano Mk II cannon.

A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as F-6A photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with Packard-built Merlin engines mounted behind the cockpit, in the fashion of the P-39.[8] This was identified as Model NA-101 by North American and XP-78 by the USAAF, later redesignated XP-51B.

'''A-36 Apache/Invader'''

At the same time, the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack aircraft and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache, which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

== Merlin Engined mustangs ==

'''P51B/C'''

In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang and found its performance inadequate at higher altitudes. As such it was to be used to replace the Tomahawk in Army Cooperation Command squadrons but the commanding officer was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. The Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid R. Freeman, lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the U.S. 8th Air Force in Britain.[9]

The high-altitude performance improvement was astonishing: the Mustang X (AM208) reached 433 mph (697 km/h) at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft.[10]After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang, with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison, was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C, B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943. The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B reached 441 mph/709.70 km/h (exactly two-thirds supersonic speed at altitude) at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and the subsequent extended range made possible by the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang to be introduced as a bomber escort.

P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI).

Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943.

A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C

'''P51D/K'''

One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been recognized by the British after the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods." Eventually all Mk IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods.

A better solution to the problem was the "teardrop" or "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit, resulting in substantially improved vision to the rear. This led to the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang.

A common misconception is that the cutting down of the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability that required the addition of a dorsal fin to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both earlier Bs and Cs and subsequent D/K models also experienced low speed handling problems that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. One report stated:

"Unless a dorsal fin is installed on the P-51B, P-51C and P-51D airplanes, a snap roll may result when attempting a slow roll. The horizontal stabilizer will not withstand the effects of a snap roll. To prevent recurrence the stabilizer should be reinforced in accordance with T.O. 01-60J-18 dated 8 April 1944 and a dorsal fin should be installed. Dorsal fin kits are being made available to overseas activities"

While some existing aircraft do not have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank — reducing the need for the dorsal fin.

Ground crew arming the P-51 with six M2 machine guns and .50 caliber ammunitionAmong other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds each, and the others had 270 rounds, for a total of 1,880. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at the time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to ten rockets per plane.

The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. By the time of the Korean war most F-51s were equipped with "uncuffed" Hamilton Standard propellers with wider, blunt tipped blades. The photo reconnaissance versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectively. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models.

The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in the theater. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models.

Concern over the USAAF's inability to escort B-29s all the way to mainland Japan resulted in the highly classified "Seahorse" project. In late 1944 Naval Aviator (and later test pilot) Bob Elder flew carrier suitability trials with a modified P-51D. The project was canceled after U.S. Marines secured the Japanese island of Iwo Jima and its airfields, making it possible for standard P-51D models to accompany B-29s all the way to the Japanese home islands and back. ("Fly Navy" - Phil Kaplan, page 51)

During 1945–48, P-51Ds were also built under licence in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation

== The "LightWeight" mustangs ==

'''XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J'''

The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by the British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost.

A subtle change made in the lightweight Mustangs was the use of an improved NACA 66 series airfoil and a slightly thinner wing than that used by earlier Mustangs.[12]

In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disc brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines.

A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production.

'''P51H'''

The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service.

The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost control with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h or Mach 0.74) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m).

The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:

P-51H-1-NA 44-64160 – 44-64179
P-51H-5-NA 44-64180 – 44-64459
P-51H-10-NA 44-64460 – 44-64714
Additional orders, already on the books, were cancelled. With the cutback in production, the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the U.S. Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity.

Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's next generation of jet-powered fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the first straight-winged variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing designs.

== Operational history ==

'''US operational service'''

At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective.

Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers too vulnerable, contrary to Giulio Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. Due to the high casualty rates, the Luftwaffe soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its raids over Germany.

Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it costly to continue such long-range raids without adequate fighter escort.

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European theater due to its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on more than even terms, but did not at the time have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single, well-understood, reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could accompany the bombers all the way to Germany and back.

Ferry pilot Florene Watson, Women Airforce Service Pilots, warms up a P-51Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task of escorting bombers all the way to the deepest targets, thus complementing the more numerous P-47s until sufficient Mustangs became available. The Eighth Air Force immediately began to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converted its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until by the end of the year 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang.[13]

Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid U.S. fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in fall 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.

Lt. Vernon R Richards, 374th FS, 361st FG. Early production P-51D-5-NA without tail fillet.Beginning in late February 1944 Eighth Air Force fighter units began systematic strafing attacks on German airfields that picked up in frequency and intensity throughout the spring with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy battlefield. In general these were conducted by units returning from escort missions, but beginning in March many groups also were assigned airfield attacks instead of bomber support. On April 15 VIII FC began Operation Jackpot, attacks on specific Luftwaffe fighter airfields, and on May 21 these attacks were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and rolling stock used by the Germans for movements of materiel and troops in missions dubbed "Chattanooga".[14] The P-51 also excelled at this mission, although losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially due to the vulnerability of the Mustang's cooling system to small arms hits. Like other fighters using liquid cooled engines, the Mustang's coolant system could be punctured by a hit from a single bullet.

The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency helped cripple the Luftwaffe's fighter force. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by summer 1944.

Chuck Yeager's P-51D-15-NA Glamorous Glennis III, is the aircraft in which the future test pilot achieved most of his 12.5 killsP-51s also distinguished themselves against advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51, but as all aircraft are, were vulnerable on take-off. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach. On 7 October 1944 Lt. Urban Drew, of the 365th Fighter Group, went one better. During a fighter sweep he surprised two Me 262s on take-off and shot them down. On the same day Hubert Zemke, now flying Mustangs, shot down what he thought was a Bf 109, only for the gun camera film to reveal a Me 262.[15] On 1 November 1944, the Mustang pilots once again demonstrated that the threat could be contained with numbers. While flying as escorts for B-17s, the 20th Fighter Group was attacked by a lone Me 262, which destroyed a solitary P-51. The Me 262 then attempted to attack the bombers, only to be cut off by a mixed formation of P-51s and P-47s. The Fighter Groups competed for the kill. Eventually a P-47 pilot of the 56th, and Mustang pilots Lt Gerbe and Groce of the 352nd Fighter Groups, shared the kill.[16]

The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 2520 aircraft.[17]

P-51Cs and Ds of 118 Tac/R Squadron, Laohwangping, China. June 1945. (Fred Poats photo).One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft claimed destroyed. This included 550 claimed in aerial combat and 466 claimed on the ground.[18]

In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. Martin Bowman reports that in the ETO Mustangs flew 213,873 sorties and lost 2,520 aircraft to all causes.[citation needed]

P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in close-support and escort missions as well as operating in the Tactical Photo Reconnaissance role.

[edit] Post-World War II

F-51 Mustang taxis through a puddle in Korea, laden with bombs and rocketsIn the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status.

In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG).

USAF F-51D dropping napalm on a target in North KoreaDuring the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea. With the aircraft being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load.

At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952.

West Virginia Air National Guard F-51D. Note: postwar "uncuffed" propeller unit.F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and Air National Guard throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was P-51D-30-NA Serial No. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia ANG in 1957. This aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is, however, painted as P-51D-15-NA Ser No. 44-15174.[19]

The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF dumped hundreds of P-51s out onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft both in the U.S. and overseas. In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes but were fitted with new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio fit, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger wing which could carry six 0.50-inch machine guns and a total of eight underwing hardpoints. Two 1000-pound bombs and six five-inch rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy, but carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang was a two-seat dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale to South American and Asian nations through the Military Assistance Program (MAP), they were delivered to the USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers (67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).[19]

The last U.S. military use of the F-51 was in 1968, when the U. S. Army employed a vintage F-51D (44-72990) as a chase aircraft for the Lockheed YAH-56 Cheyenne armed helicopter project. This aircraft was so successful that the Army ordered two F-51Ds from Cavalier in 1968 for use at Fort Rucker as chase planes. They were assigned the serials 68-15795 and 65-15796. These F-51s had wingtip fuel tanks and were unarmed. Following the end of the Cheyenne program, these two chase aircraft were used for other projects. One of them (68-15795) was fitted with a 106-mm recoilless rifle for evaluation of the weapon's value in attacking fortified ground targets.[20]

The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid 1980s with smaller air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally being retired by the Dominican Air Force (FAD) in 1984

'''Non-US service '''

The P-51 Mustang remained in service with more than 30 air forces after World War II; the last was retired from active service in the early 1980s. Here is a list of some of the countries that used the P-51 Mustang.

Argentina
[citation needed]
Australia

Australian P-51Ds in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, in 1947The first Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) unit to use Mustangs was No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which converted to them at its base in Italy in November 1944. The RAAF had also decided to replace its P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific Area with P-51s, and ordered a total of about 500 Mustangs, which were to be built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), the only non-U.S. production line. In 1944, 100 P-51Ds were shipped from the U.S. in kit form to inaugurate production at Fishermans Bend, in Melbourne. CAC assembled 80 of these under the designation CA-17/Mark 20, the remaining 20 being kept unassembled as spare parts.
CAC then produced 120 more P-51Ds on its own (reduced from an initial order for 170), which it designated CA-18/Mark 21, 22 or 23. (The RAAF used the serial number prefix A68 for all P-51s.) The Mk 22 was a photo reconnaissance variant and the Mk 23 had newer model British-made Merlin engines. In addition, 84 P-51Ks were also shipped direct to the RAAF from the USA. However, only 17 Mustangs reached the front line squadrons of the First Tactical Air Force by the time World War II ended in August 1945. The RAAF subsequently cancelled further orders for about 200 Mustangs. No. 77 Squadron RAAF also used P-51s extensively during the first years of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.[22]
Bolivia
Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.
Canada

Restored P-51D in the markings of No. 402 "City of Winnipeg" RCAF Auxiliary SquadronCanada had five squadrons equipped with Mustangs during World War II. RCAF No. 400, 414 and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk 1s (1942-1944) and nos. 441 and 442 flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945. Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular: No. 416 "Lynx" and no. 417 "City of Windsor" and six auxiliary fighter squadrons: no. 402 "City of Winnipeg," no. 403 "City of Calgary," no. 420 "City of London," no. 424 "City of Hamilton," no. 442 "City of Vancouver" and no. 443 "City of New Westminster." The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956; a number of special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.
China
Some of the P-51Cs and Ds were given to China by early 1945. Delivered from the U.S. 10th AF in India, those Mustangs were equipped to the 5th, 3rd and 4th FG of CAF to attack the Japanese targets in China. After the war, they were also used against the Chinese Communist Forces. When the Chinese Nationalist retreated from the Mainland, Many of them ended up in Taiwan when their pilots sided with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Further P-51s were acquired from the USAF and other sources. Some P-51s were subsequently lost to the Communist People's Liberation Army Air Force during the Nationalist retreat from the Chinese mainland.
Costa Rica
The Costa Rica Air Force flew four F-51s from 1955–64.
Cuba
Some reports claim that under the terms of the 1947 Rio Pact, Cuba was supplied with F-51D Mustangs. These reports appear to be erroneous. However, after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba's Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria illegally acquired three ex-civilian Mustangs reputedly being bought in Canada by envoys of Fidel Castro. The P-51 Mustangs did not enter service soon enough to see any action during the Cuban revolution. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Mustangs were damaged on the ground, and were repaired too late to participate in the fighting. They served with the Cuban air force until they were replaced with Russian-built equipment in the early 1960s.[23]
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (FAD) was the largest Latin American air force to employ the F-51D with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44 ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948 and a further Mustang obtained from an unknown source.[24] It was the last nation to have the F-51 Mustang in service, with some remaining in use as late as 1984.
El Salvador
The FAS purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual control Cavalier TF-51) featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service.
France
In late 1944, the first French unit began its transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service until the early 1950s when they were replaced by jet fighters.
Guatemala
Guatemala (FAG) had 30 P-51s in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.
Haiti
Haiti had four Mustangs when President Paul Eugène Magloire was in power between 1950 and 1956, with the last retired in 1973-74 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.[25]
Honduras
Seven Mustangs were acquired from private sources to fight in the so-called "Football War."[citation needed]
Indonesia
Indonesia acquired some F-51s from the departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949/1950. The Mustangs were used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF and RNZAF) forces during the Indonesian confrontation in the early 1960s. The last time Mustangs were to be deployed for military purposes was a shipment of six Cavalier II Mustangs (without tip tanks) delivered to Indonesia in 1972-1973, which were replaced in 1976.[26][27]
Israel
A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by Israel in 1948 for use in the War of Independence (1948) and quickly established themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and Nicaragua but were replaced by jets at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis, Operation Kadesh (1956). Reputedly, during this conflict, one daring Israeli pilot literally cut communications between Suez City and the Egyptian front lines by using his Mustang's propeller on the telephone wires.[28]
Italy
During the war, from 1943-45, Italian pilots faced an increasing number of Mustangs, but only in the last years were they the main threat, because P-38s and P-47s were still present in great numbers. Mustangs were generally quite superior to Italian fighters, both indigenous types and the Bf 109s given by Germany, but some Mustangs were lost as well in those aerial battles. No Italian pilot flew Mustangs before the end of the war.
Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds; deliveries were slowed by the Korean war, but between September 1947 and January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 51 Stormo (Wing) and some in schools and experimentals units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter, P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics. Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully utilized and several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated even compared to the other primary postwar Italian fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the Mustang began in summer 1958.[29]
Japan
The P-51C-11-NT "Evalina" marked as "278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) flown by 26th FS, 51st FG, was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly landed on Suchon Airfield in China which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft, roughly applied Hinomarus and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation centre (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.
Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force received 40 P-51s and flew them in the Indonesian conflict. When the conflict was over Indonesia received some of the ML-KNIL Mustangs.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (GN) gained 26 Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and used them until 1964.
New Zealand

P-51D in No. 3 (Canterbury) TAF livery, performing at 2007 Wings over Wairarapa airshowNew Zealand ordered 320 P-51 Mustangs as a partial replacement of its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theatre. Thirty were delivered in 1945 but the war ended before they entered service. The remainder were retained in the U.S. The 30 received were stored in their packing cases until 1950 when put into service with the New Zealand Territorial Air Force (TAF)'s Auckland , Wellington, Canterbury and Otago squadrons. The TAF was disbanded in 1957 and the Mustangs retired, one being retained by 42 Squadron for regular target towing duties, and the remainder being sold for scrap. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron. A Mustang is on display in the RNZAF Museum and three other privately owned Mustangs are airworthy in the country.[22]
Philippines

P-51 Mustangs of the Philippine Air Force circa 1950's. The PAF had problems with the plane's retracting rear wheel and finally modified the mechanism into a fixed "down" position even in flightThe Philippines acquired P-51 Mustangs after World War II. These became the backbone of the postwar Philippine Army Air Corps and Philippine Air Force and were used extensively during the Huk campaign, fighting against Communist insurgents. Mustangs were also the first aircraft of the Philippine air demonstration squadron, which was formed in 1953 and given the name "The Blue Diamonds" the following year.[30] The Mustangs were replaced by F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s.
Poland
During World War II, five Polish Air Force in Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June 1942) with Mustang Mk Is was Flight B of No. 309 Polish Army-Cooperation Squadron, followed by Flight A in March 1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was renamed No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1943, No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron received Mustangs Mk IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in No. 309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again renamed, as No. 309 Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements. Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned approximately 80 Mustangs Mk IIIs and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the U.S. government.[31]
Somalia
South Africa
The South African Air Force operated a number of Mustang Is and IIs (P-51As) in Italy and the Middle East during World War II. After VE-Day, these machines were soon struck off charge and scrapped. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952/1953.
South Korea
Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy air services during World War II as well as by U.S. advisers led by Major Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from U.S. and from South African stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union received at least 10 early-model Mustangs and tested them in combat. Some reports suggest that other Mustangs that were abandoned in Russia after the famous "shuttle missions" were repaired and used by the Soviet Air Force, but not in frontline service.
Sri Lanka
[citation needed]
Sweden
Sweden's Flygvapnet first recuperated four of the P-51s (two P-51Bs and two early P-51Ds) that had been diverted to Sweden during missions over Europe. In February 1945, Sweden purchased 50 P-51Ds designated J 26, which were delivered by American pilots in April and assigned to the F 16 wing at Uppsala as interceptors. In early 1946, the F 4 wing at Östersund was equipped with a second batch of 90 P-51Ds. A final batch of 21 airplanes was purchased in 1948. In all, 161 J 26s served in the Swedish Air Force during the late 1940s. About a dozen were modified for photo reconnaissance and re-designated S 26. A few of these aircraft participated in the top secret Swedish mapping of new Soviet military installations at the Baltic coast in 1946-47, a project that entailed many intentional violations of Soviet airspace. However, the Mustang could outdive any Soviet fighter of that era, so no S 26 was lost in these missions. The J 26s were replaced by De Havilland Vampires around 1950. The S 26s were replaced by S 29Cs in the early 1950s.

A restored Swiss Air Force P-51. Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force operated a few USAAF P-51s which had been impounded by Swiss authorities during World War II after the pilots were forced to land in neutral Switzerland. After the war, Switzerland also bought 130 P-51s for $4,000 each. They served until 1958.
United Kingdom
The RAF was the first air force to operate the P-51 which was originally designed to meet RAF requirements. The first P-51As (RAF Mustang Is) entered service in 1941, wearing the standard RAF fighter markings. Due to poor high-altitude performance, the Mustangs were soon transferred to Army co-operation and fighter reconnaissance duties. On 27 July 1942, sixteen RAF Mustangs undertook their first long-range reconnaissance mission over Germany. During Operation Jubilee, the Dieppe Raid (19 August 1942), four British and Canadian Mustang squadrons, including No. 26 Squadron RAF saw action. By 1943/1944, British Mustangs were used extensively to seek out V-1 sites. The final RAF Mustang I and Mustang II machines were struck off charge in 1945. The RAF operated several Mustang III (P-51B/C) machines, the first units converting to the type in late 1943/1944. Mustang III units were operational until the end of World War II, though many units had already converted to the Mustang IV (P-51D/K). RAF pilots preferred the Mustang III (with Malcolm hood), but the RAF re-equipped with Mustang IVs. As the Mustang was a Lend-Lease type, all aircraft still on RAF charge at the end of the war were either returned to the USAAF "on paper" or retained by the RAF for scrapping. The final Mustangs were retired from RAF use in 1947.
Uruguay
Uruguay (FAU) used 25 F-51D Mustangs from 1950 to 1960 — some were subsequently sold to Bolivia.
Venezuela
Venezuela (FAV) used only a sole Mustang which was acquired from another Latin American country

'''p51's and civil aviation'''

Many P-51s were sold as surplus after the war, often for as little as $1,500. Some were sold to former wartime fliers or other aficionados for personal use, while others were modified for air racing.[32]

One of the most prominent Mustangs involved in air racing was a surplus P-51C purchased by Paul Mantz, a film stunt pilot. The aircraft was modified by creating a "wet wing", sealing the wing to create a giant fuel tank in each wing, which eliminated the need for fuel stops or drag-inducing drop tanks. This Mustang, called "Blaze of Noon", came in first in the 1946 and 1947 Bendix Air Races, second in the 1948 Bendix and third in the 1949 Bendix. He also set a U.S. coast-to-coast record in 1947. The Mantz Mustang was sold to Charles F. Blair Jr (future husband of Maureen O'Hara) and re-named "Excaliber III". Blair used it to set a New York-to-London record in 1951. Later that same year he flew from Norway to Fairbanks, Alaska, via the North Pole, proving that navigation via sun sights was possible over the magnetic north pole region. For this feat, he was awarded the Harmon Trophy and the Air Force was forced to change its thoughts on a possible Soviet air strike from the north. This Mustang now resides in the National Air and Space Museum at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

The most prominent firm to convert Mustangs to civilian use was Trans-Florida Aviation, later renamed Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which produced the Cavalier Mustang. Modifications included a taller tailfin and wingtip tanks. A number of conversions included a Cavalier Mustang specialty: a "tight" second seat added in the space formerly occupied by the military radio and fuselage fuel tank.

P-51D of the CAF's Dixie WingIronically, in the late 1960s and early 1970s when the United States Department of Defense wished to supply aircraft to South American countries and later Indonesia, for close air support and counter insurgency, it turned to Cavalier to return some of their civilian conversions back to updated military specifications.

The P-51 is perhaps the most sought after of all warbirds on the civilian market; the average price usually exceeds $1 million, even for only partially restored aircraft.[33] Some privately owned P-51s are still flying, often associated with organizations such as the Commemorative Air Force (formerly the Confederate Air Force).

== Variants ==

NA-73X
The initial prototype was designated the NA-73X by the manufacturer, North American Aviation.

Mustang I
The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters. This aircraft was named Mustang I by the British. A second British contract for 300 more Mustang Is was assigned a model number of NA-83 by North American.
XP-51
Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAF were designated XP-51.
P-51
In September 1940, 150 aircraft designated NA-91 by North American were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named the Apache although this name was dropped early-on for Mustang. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. They were equipped with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano-Suiza Mk II cannon instead of machine guns. A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as photo reconnaissance aircraft and designated F-6A. The British would fit a number of Mustang I fighters with photographic reconnaissance equipment as well. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with the Packard-built Merlin engine and were designated by North American as model NA-101 and by the USAAF initially as the XP-78, but re-designated quickly to XP-51B.
In early 1942, the USAAF ordered a lot of 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A. North American assigned the aircraft the model number NA-97. This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

Following the A-36A order the USAAF ordered 310 model NA-99 fighters that were designated P-51A by the USAAF. and Mustang II by the RAF. A number of this lot of aircraft were equipped with K-24 cameras and designated F-6B. All these models of the Mustang were equipped with Allison V-1710 engines except the prototype XP-51B.

Beginning with the model NA-102 Mustang the Packard built Merlin V-1650 engine replaced the Allison. In the summer of 1943 Mustang production was begun at a new plant in Dallas, Texas as well as at the existing facility in Inglewood, California. The model NA-102 was produced as the P-51B in Inglewood while the NA-103 as the P-51C was produced at Dallas. The RAF named these models Mustang III. Again, a number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo Reconnaissance and designated F-6C.

The prototypes of the bubble canopy change were designated model NA-106 by North American and P-51D by the USAAF. The production version, while retaining the P-51D designation, was assigned a model number NA-109 by North American. The "D" became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A variation of the P-51D equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller was designated the P-51K. The photo versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectfully. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the "D" model and Mustang IVA to "K" models.

As the USAAF specifications required airframe design to a higher load factor than that used by British for their fighters, consideration was given to re-designing the Mustang to the lower British requirements in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft and thus improve performance. In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to do the re-design as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. The designation XP-51F was assigned for prototypes powered with V-1650 engines and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disk brakes, and a larger canopy. A third prototype was added to the development that was powered by an Allison V-1710 engine. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. As the engine was insufficiently developed the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. A small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V.

The final production Mustang, the P-51H embodied the experience gained in the development of the lightweight XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, model NA-126 and with minor differences NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak which was probably the fastest production piston engine fighter to see service. The P-51H used the Merlin V-1659-9 engine, equipped with Simmons automatic boost control and water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2,218 horsepower. Some of the weight savings inherited from the XP-51F and XP-51G were invested in lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, greatly reducing the tendency to yaw, and in restoring the fuselage fuel tank. The canopy was changed back to more nearly resemble the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was improved. The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan and 2,000 were ordered to be built at the Inglewood plant. With the solution to the problem of yaw control, the P-51H was now considered a suitable candidate for testing as an aircraft carrier based fighter; but with the end of the war, the testing was cut short, and production was halted after 555 aircraft were built. Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat. One aircraft was given to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was re-serialled BuNo 09064 and used by the Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, due to the lack of experience with durability of the lighter airframe under combat conditions as well as limited numbers in the USAF inventory.[35]

With the cutback in production the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

== Production ==

Source: U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909[36]
NA.73X Prototype: One built
P-51: 150 built
P-51A: 310 built at Inglewood, California
P-51B: 1,988 built at Inglewood
P-51C: 1,750 built at Dallas, Texas
P-51D: A total of 8,156 were built: 6,502 at Inglewood, 1,454 at Dallas and 200 by CAC at Fisherman's Bend, Australia
XP-51F: Three built
XP-51G: Two built
P-51H: 555 built at Inglewood
XP-51J: Two built

P-51D being assembled, Inglewood CA.[37]P-51K: 1,500 built
P-51L: None built - cancelled
P-51M: One built at Dallas
Mustang I: 620 built
Mustang III: 852 built
Mustang IV: 281 built
Mustang IVA: 595 built
Total number built: 15,875 (among American fighter aircraft second only to the P-47 Thunderbolt)

== Survivors ==

Among the 287 current airframes and the 154 "flying" Mustangs are the following:[38]

XP-51 41-038 Original prototype on display, Oshkosh
P-51A-1NA Mustang in storage for restoration, Kermit Weeks, Polk City FL
P-51A-10-NA Mustang now flying and marked as "Miss Virginia" Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca [39]
A-36 Mustang Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51C-10-NT Mustang flying as "Ina the Macon Belle" of Lt. Lee Archer, the only 5 victory ace of the "Tuskegee Airmen" 332nd FG, 302nd FS. Kermit Weeks, Tamiami FL.
P-51D Mustang, Olympic flight museum, Olympia, Wa. In flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, IN. In flying condition, served with the North Dakota, Alabama, and Kentucky Air National Guards.
P-51 Mustang (Mk IV), Vintage Wings of Canada, Gatineau, Québec.
P-51D Mustang, N167F, Scandinavia Historic Flight, painted as "Old Crow", the aircraft of one of the 8th AF aces, Col. Clarence E. "Bud" Anderson of the 357th Fighter Group, 363rd Fighter Squadron.[40]
P-51D Mustang, SE-BIL, "It's About Time", based in Sweden.[41]
P-51D Mustang, (P-51D-20NA) Cavanaugh Flight Museum, Addison, Texas. The aircraft is in flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, 'Spam Can' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51D Mustang, 'Wee Willy II' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
"Ole Yeller", flown by John Bagley at an airshow in Rexburg, ID.P-51D Mustang Marked as under restoration Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51H Mustang 44-64415 Flying, Whittington Bros, Fort Lauderdale FL
P-51D "Old Yeller" - Formerly owned by Bob Hoover. In flying condition. Currently owned by John Bagley of Rexburg, ID and displayed at the Legacy Flight Museum (http://www.legacyflightmuseum.com/).
CA-17 Mk.20 A68-1, flying, Wiley Sanders, Troy AL
CA-18 Kk.21 A68-104, VH-BOB, flying, Bob Eastgate, Australia
P-51D Mustang, G-BTCD S/NUMBER 44-73419 - Painted to resemble 44-13704, "Ferocious Frankie", Operated by the Old Flying Machine Company, Duxford, Cambridgshire, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDDGHC9Y1F4
P-51D Mustang, G-SIJJ, 44-072035 - painted to resemble 4464076 "Jumpin Jacques", Operated by the Hangar 11 Collection, North Weald, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROuCJ9REAGw

== Specifications ==

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 32 ft 3 in (9.83 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 13 ft 8 in (4.17 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,635 lb (3,465 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,200 lb (4,175 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 12,100 lb (5,490 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-7 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,695 hp (1,265 kW)
Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0163
Drag area: 3.80 ft² (0.35 m²)
Aspect ratio: 5.83
Performance

Maximum speed: 437 mph (703 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Cruise speed: 362 mph (580 km/h)
Stall speed: 100 mph (160 km/h)
Range: 1,650 mi (2,755 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,900 ft (12,770 m)
Rate of climb: 3,200 ft/min (16.3 m/s)
Wing loading: 39 lb/ft² (192 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (300 W/kg)
Lift-to-drag ratio: 14.6
Recommended Mach limit 0.8
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns; 400 rounds per gun for the two inboard guns; 270 per outboard gun
2 hardpoints for up to 2,000 lb (907 kg)
10 × 5 in (127 mm) rockets

[edit] P-51H Mustang
Data from The Great Book of Fighters[42]

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 11 ft 1 in (3.38 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,040 lb (3,195 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,500 lb (4,310 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 11,500 lb (5,215 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-9 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,380 hp (1,030 kW) military, 2,218 hp (1,655 kW) WEP
Performance

Maximum speed: 487 mph (784 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Range: 1,160 mi (1,865 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,600 ft (12,680 m)
Rate of climb: 3,300 ft/min (16.8 m/s)
Wing loading: 40.4 lb/ft² (197.4 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (385 W/kg)
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns with 1,880 total rounds (400 rounds for each on the inner pair, and 270 rounds for each of the outer two pair), or 4 of the same guns with 1,600 total rounds (400 per gun).

P51 Mustang

2008-06-30T00:09:07Z

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The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft.

{{Infobox Aircraft
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== Overview ==
The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority from early 1944. It also saw limited service against the Japanese in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter, but was relegated to a ground attack role when superseded by jet fighters early in the conflict. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s.

As well as being economical to produce, the Mustang was a fast, well-made and highly durable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and (the P-51D) were armed with six of the aircraft version of the .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns.

After World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. The Mustang's reputation was such that, in the mid-1960s, Ford Motor Company's Designer John Najjar proposed the name for a new youth-oriented coupe after the fighter

== Genesis ==

In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who, as the "Air Member for Development and Production", was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938, Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee"), and one of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time the choice was very limited: none of the U.S. aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply.

North American Aviation (NAA) was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF, but were otherwise underutilized. NAA President "Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss.

Kindelberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time than it would take to set up a production line for the P-40. By now the executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP), Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300

== Development and Design ==

The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design followed the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds.[4] Another was the use of a new radiator design (one Curtiss had been unable to make work) that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect". Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, it used the GALCIT 10-foot wind tunnel at Cal Tech. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although historians and researchers dismiss the allegation of stolen technology; such claims are likely moot in any event, as North American had purchased Curtiss’ complete set of P-40 and XP-46 wind tunnel data and flight test reports for US$56,000.[5]

While the United States Army Air Corps could block any sales it considered detrimental or not in the interest of the United States, the NA-73 represented a special case. In order to ensure deliveries were uninterrupted, an arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its aircraft in exchange for NAA providing two free examples to the USAAC for evaluation.

The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed — an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .30 caliber Browning (7.62 mm) and two .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) machineguns in the wings and two .50 M2s in the chin.

== Allison-engined mustangs ==

'''Mustang I/P51'''

It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was markedly reduced at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the single speed, single stage supercharger of the Allison V-1710 engine, where power diminished rapidly above the critical altitude rating. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric; these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft, in particular, the Air Corp's four-engine bombers. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simpler supercharger would suffice. The turbocharger proved impractical in the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate supercharger available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters, using the same powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 ft and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British aircraft's more powerful engine.[6]

The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters, named Mustang I by the British (the name being selected by an anonymous member of the Purchasing Commission). Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAC for evaluation were designated XP-51.[7] About 20 Mustang Is were delivered to the RAF, making their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but were thought to be of limited value as fighters due to their poor performance above 15,000 ft.

A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft, designated NA-91 by North American, were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named Apache, although this was soon dropped and the RAF name, Mustang, adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the wing-mounted machine guns were removed and replaced with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano Mk II cannon.

A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as F-6A photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with Packard-built Merlin engines mounted behind the cockpit, in the fashion of the P-39.[8] This was identified as Model NA-101 by North American and XP-78 by the USAAF, later redesignated XP-51B.

'''A-36 Apache/Invader'''

At the same time, the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack aircraft and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache, which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

== Merlin Engined mustangs ==

'''P51B/C'''

In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang and found its performance inadequate at higher altitudes. As such it was to be used to replace the Tomahawk in Army Cooperation Command squadrons but the commanding officer was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. The Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid R. Freeman, lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the U.S. 8th Air Force in Britain.[9]

The high-altitude performance improvement was astonishing: the Mustang X (AM208) reached 433 mph (697 km/h) at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft.[10]After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang, with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison, was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C, B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943. The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B reached 441 mph/709.70 km/h (exactly two-thirds supersonic speed at altitude) at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and the subsequent extended range made possible by the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang to be introduced as a bomber escort.

P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI).

Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943.

A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C

'''P51D/K'''

One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been recognized by the British after the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods." Eventually all Mk IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods.

A better solution to the problem was the "teardrop" or "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit, resulting in substantially improved vision to the rear. This led to the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang.

A common misconception is that the cutting down of the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability that required the addition of a dorsal fin to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both earlier Bs and Cs and subsequent D/K models also experienced low speed handling problems that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. One report stated:

"Unless a dorsal fin is installed on the P-51B, P-51C and P-51D airplanes, a snap roll may result when attempting a slow roll. The horizontal stabilizer will not withstand the effects of a snap roll. To prevent recurrence the stabilizer should be reinforced in accordance with T.O. 01-60J-18 dated 8 April 1944 and a dorsal fin should be installed. Dorsal fin kits are being made available to overseas activities"

While some existing aircraft do not have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank — reducing the need for the dorsal fin.

Ground crew arming the P-51 with six M2 machine guns and .50 caliber ammunitionAmong other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds each, and the others had 270 rounds, for a total of 1,880. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at the time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to ten rockets per plane.

The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. By the time of the Korean war most F-51s were equipped with "uncuffed" Hamilton Standard propellers with wider, blunt tipped blades. The photo reconnaissance versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectively. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models.

The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in the theater. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models.

Concern over the USAAF's inability to escort B-29s all the way to mainland Japan resulted in the highly classified "Seahorse" project. In late 1944 Naval Aviator (and later test pilot) Bob Elder flew carrier suitability trials with a modified P-51D. The project was canceled after U.S. Marines secured the Japanese island of Iwo Jima and its airfields, making it possible for standard P-51D models to accompany B-29s all the way to the Japanese home islands and back. ("Fly Navy" - Phil Kaplan, page 51)

During 1945–48, P-51Ds were also built under licence in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation

== The "LightWeight" mustangs ==

'''XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J'''

The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by the British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost.

A subtle change made in the lightweight Mustangs was the use of an improved NACA 66 series airfoil and a slightly thinner wing than that used by earlier Mustangs.[12]

In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disc brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines.

A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production.

'''P51H'''

The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service.

The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost control with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h or Mach 0.74) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m).

The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:

P-51H-1-NA 44-64160 – 44-64179
P-51H-5-NA 44-64180 – 44-64459
P-51H-10-NA 44-64460 – 44-64714
Additional orders, already on the books, were cancelled. With the cutback in production, the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the U.S. Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity.

Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's next generation of jet-powered fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the first straight-winged variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing designs.

== Operational history ==

'''US operational service'''

At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective.

Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers too vulnerable, contrary to Giulio Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. Due to the high casualty rates, the Luftwaffe soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its raids over Germany.

Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it costly to continue such long-range raids without adequate fighter escort.

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European theater due to its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on more than even terms, but did not at the time have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single, well-understood, reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could accompany the bombers all the way to Germany and back.

Ferry pilot Florene Watson, Women Airforce Service Pilots, warms up a P-51Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task of escorting bombers all the way to the deepest targets, thus complementing the more numerous P-47s until sufficient Mustangs became available. The Eighth Air Force immediately began to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converted its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until by the end of the year 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang.[13]

Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid U.S. fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in fall 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.

Lt. Vernon R Richards, 374th FS, 361st FG. Early production P-51D-5-NA without tail fillet.Beginning in late February 1944 Eighth Air Force fighter units began systematic strafing attacks on German airfields that picked up in frequency and intensity throughout the spring with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy battlefield. In general these were conducted by units returning from escort missions, but beginning in March many groups also were assigned airfield attacks instead of bomber support. On April 15 VIII FC began Operation Jackpot, attacks on specific Luftwaffe fighter airfields, and on May 21 these attacks were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and rolling stock used by the Germans for movements of materiel and troops in missions dubbed "Chattanooga".[14] The P-51 also excelled at this mission, although losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially due to the vulnerability of the Mustang's cooling system to small arms hits. Like other fighters using liquid cooled engines, the Mustang's coolant system could be punctured by a hit from a single bullet.

The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency helped cripple the Luftwaffe's fighter force. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by summer 1944.

Chuck Yeager's P-51D-15-NA Glamorous Glennis III, is the aircraft in which the future test pilot achieved most of his 12.5 killsP-51s also distinguished themselves against advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51, but as all aircraft are, were vulnerable on take-off. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach. On 7 October 1944 Lt. Urban Drew, of the 365th Fighter Group, went one better. During a fighter sweep he surprised two Me 262s on take-off and shot them down. On the same day Hubert Zemke, now flying Mustangs, shot down what he thought was a Bf 109, only for the gun camera film to reveal a Me 262.[15] On 1 November 1944, the Mustang pilots once again demonstrated that the threat could be contained with numbers. While flying as escorts for B-17s, the 20th Fighter Group was attacked by a lone Me 262, which destroyed a solitary P-51. The Me 262 then attempted to attack the bombers, only to be cut off by a mixed formation of P-51s and P-47s. The Fighter Groups competed for the kill. Eventually a P-47 pilot of the 56th, and Mustang pilots Lt Gerbe and Groce of the 352nd Fighter Groups, shared the kill.[16]

The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 2520 aircraft.[17]

P-51Cs and Ds of 118 Tac/R Squadron, Laohwangping, China. June 1945. (Fred Poats photo).One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft claimed destroyed. This included 550 claimed in aerial combat and 466 claimed on the ground.[18]

In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. Martin Bowman reports that in the ETO Mustangs flew 213,873 sorties and lost 2,520 aircraft to all causes.[citation needed]

P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in close-support and escort missions as well as operating in the Tactical Photo Reconnaissance role.

[edit] Post-World War II

F-51 Mustang taxis through a puddle in Korea, laden with bombs and rocketsIn the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status.

In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG).

USAF F-51D dropping napalm on a target in North KoreaDuring the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea. With the aircraft being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load.

At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952.

West Virginia Air National Guard F-51D. Note: postwar "uncuffed" propeller unit.F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and Air National Guard throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was P-51D-30-NA Serial No. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia ANG in 1957. This aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is, however, painted as P-51D-15-NA Ser No. 44-15174.[19]

The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF dumped hundreds of P-51s out onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft both in the U.S. and overseas. In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes but were fitted with new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio fit, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger wing which could carry six 0.50-inch machine guns and a total of eight underwing hardpoints. Two 1000-pound bombs and six five-inch rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy, but carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang was a two-seat dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale to South American and Asian nations through the Military Assistance Program (MAP), they were delivered to the USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers (67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).[19]

The last U.S. military use of the F-51 was in 1968, when the U. S. Army employed a vintage F-51D (44-72990) as a chase aircraft for the Lockheed YAH-56 Cheyenne armed helicopter project. This aircraft was so successful that the Army ordered two F-51Ds from Cavalier in 1968 for use at Fort Rucker as chase planes. They were assigned the serials 68-15795 and 65-15796. These F-51s had wingtip fuel tanks and were unarmed. Following the end of the Cheyenne program, these two chase aircraft were used for other projects. One of them (68-15795) was fitted with a 106-mm recoilless rifle for evaluation of the weapon's value in attacking fortified ground targets.[20]

The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid 1980s with smaller air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally being retired by the Dominican Air Force (FAD) in 1984

'''Non-US service '''

The P-51 Mustang remained in service with more than 30 air forces after World War II; the last was retired from active service in the early 1980s. Here is a list of some of the countries that used the P-51 Mustang.

Argentina
[citation needed]
Australia

Australian P-51Ds in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, in 1947The first Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) unit to use Mustangs was No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which converted to them at its base in Italy in November 1944. The RAAF had also decided to replace its P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific Area with P-51s, and ordered a total of about 500 Mustangs, which were to be built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), the only non-U.S. production line. In 1944, 100 P-51Ds were shipped from the U.S. in kit form to inaugurate production at Fishermans Bend, in Melbourne. CAC assembled 80 of these under the designation CA-17/Mark 20, the remaining 20 being kept unassembled as spare parts.
CAC then produced 120 more P-51Ds on its own (reduced from an initial order for 170), which it designated CA-18/Mark 21, 22 or 23. (The RAAF used the serial number prefix A68 for all P-51s.) The Mk 22 was a photo reconnaissance variant and the Mk 23 had newer model British-made Merlin engines. In addition, 84 P-51Ks were also shipped direct to the RAAF from the USA. However, only 17 Mustangs reached the front line squadrons of the First Tactical Air Force by the time World War II ended in August 1945. The RAAF subsequently cancelled further orders for about 200 Mustangs. No. 77 Squadron RAAF also used P-51s extensively during the first years of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.[22]
Bolivia
Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.
Canada

Restored P-51D in the markings of No. 402 "City of Winnipeg" RCAF Auxiliary SquadronCanada had five squadrons equipped with Mustangs during World War II. RCAF No. 400, 414 and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk 1s (1942-1944) and nos. 441 and 442 flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945. Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular: No. 416 "Lynx" and no. 417 "City of Windsor" and six auxiliary fighter squadrons: no. 402 "City of Winnipeg," no. 403 "City of Calgary," no. 420 "City of London," no. 424 "City of Hamilton," no. 442 "City of Vancouver" and no. 443 "City of New Westminster." The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956; a number of special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.
China
Some of the P-51Cs and Ds were given to China by early 1945. Delivered from the U.S. 10th AF in India, those Mustangs were equipped to the 5th, 3rd and 4th FG of CAF to attack the Japanese targets in China. After the war, they were also used against the Chinese Communist Forces. When the Chinese Nationalist retreated from the Mainland, Many of them ended up in Taiwan when their pilots sided with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Further P-51s were acquired from the USAF and other sources. Some P-51s were subsequently lost to the Communist People's Liberation Army Air Force during the Nationalist retreat from the Chinese mainland.
Costa Rica
The Costa Rica Air Force flew four F-51s from 1955–64.
Cuba
Some reports claim that under the terms of the 1947 Rio Pact, Cuba was supplied with F-51D Mustangs. These reports appear to be erroneous. However, after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba's Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria illegally acquired three ex-civilian Mustangs reputedly being bought in Canada by envoys of Fidel Castro. The P-51 Mustangs did not enter service soon enough to see any action during the Cuban revolution. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Mustangs were damaged on the ground, and were repaired too late to participate in the fighting. They served with the Cuban air force until they were replaced with Russian-built equipment in the early 1960s.[23]
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (FAD) was the largest Latin American air force to employ the F-51D with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44 ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948 and a further Mustang obtained from an unknown source.[24] It was the last nation to have the F-51 Mustang in service, with some remaining in use as late as 1984.
El Salvador
The FAS purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual control Cavalier TF-51) featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service.
France
In late 1944, the first French unit began its transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service until the early 1950s when they were replaced by jet fighters.
Guatemala
Guatemala (FAG) had 30 P-51s in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.
Haiti
Haiti had four Mustangs when President Paul Eugène Magloire was in power between 1950 and 1956, with the last retired in 1973-74 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.[25]
Honduras
Seven Mustangs were acquired from private sources to fight in the so-called "Football War."[citation needed]
Indonesia
Indonesia acquired some F-51s from the departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949/1950. The Mustangs were used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF and RNZAF) forces during the Indonesian confrontation in the early 1960s. The last time Mustangs were to be deployed for military purposes was a shipment of six Cavalier II Mustangs (without tip tanks) delivered to Indonesia in 1972-1973, which were replaced in 1976.[26][27]
Israel
A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by Israel in 1948 for use in the War of Independence (1948) and quickly established themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and Nicaragua but were replaced by jets at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis, Operation Kadesh (1956). Reputedly, during this conflict, one daring Israeli pilot literally cut communications between Suez City and the Egyptian front lines by using his Mustang's propeller on the telephone wires.[28]
Italy
During the war, from 1943-45, Italian pilots faced an increasing number of Mustangs, but only in the last years were they the main threat, because P-38s and P-47s were still present in great numbers. Mustangs were generally quite superior to Italian fighters, both indigenous types and the Bf 109s given by Germany, but some Mustangs were lost as well in those aerial battles. No Italian pilot flew Mustangs before the end of the war.
Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds; deliveries were slowed by the Korean war, but between September 1947 and January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 51 Stormo (Wing) and some in schools and experimentals units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter, P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics. Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully utilized and several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated even compared to the other primary postwar Italian fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the Mustang began in summer 1958.[29]
Japan
The P-51C-11-NT "Evalina" marked as "278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) flown by 26th FS, 51st FG, was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly landed on Suchon Airfield in China which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft, roughly applied Hinomarus and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation centre (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.
Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force received 40 P-51s and flew them in the Indonesian conflict. When the conflict was over Indonesia received some of the ML-KNIL Mustangs.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (GN) gained 26 Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and used them until 1964.
New Zealand

P-51D in No. 3 (Canterbury) TAF livery, performing at 2007 Wings over Wairarapa airshowNew Zealand ordered 320 P-51 Mustangs as a partial replacement of its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theatre. Thirty were delivered in 1945 but the war ended before they entered service. The remainder were retained in the U.S. The 30 received were stored in their packing cases until 1950 when put into service with the New Zealand Territorial Air Force (TAF)'s Auckland , Wellington, Canterbury and Otago squadrons. The TAF was disbanded in 1957 and the Mustangs retired, one being retained by 42 Squadron for regular target towing duties, and the remainder being sold for scrap. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron. A Mustang is on display in the RNZAF Museum and three other privately owned Mustangs are airworthy in the country.[22]
Philippines

P-51 Mustangs of the Philippine Air Force circa 1950's. The PAF had problems with the plane's retracting rear wheel and finally modified the mechanism into a fixed "down" position even in flightThe Philippines acquired P-51 Mustangs after World War II. These became the backbone of the postwar Philippine Army Air Corps and Philippine Air Force and were used extensively during the Huk campaign, fighting against Communist insurgents. Mustangs were also the first aircraft of the Philippine air demonstration squadron, which was formed in 1953 and given the name "The Blue Diamonds" the following year.[30] The Mustangs were replaced by F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s.
Poland
During World War II, five Polish Air Force in Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June 1942) with Mustang Mk Is was Flight B of No. 309 Polish Army-Cooperation Squadron, followed by Flight A in March 1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was renamed No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1943, No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron received Mustangs Mk IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in No. 309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again renamed, as No. 309 Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements. Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned approximately 80 Mustangs Mk IIIs and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the U.S. government.[31]
Somalia
South Africa
The South African Air Force operated a number of Mustang Is and IIs (P-51As) in Italy and the Middle East during World War II. After VE-Day, these machines were soon struck off charge and scrapped. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952/1953.
South Korea
Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy air services during World War II as well as by U.S. advisers led by Major Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from U.S. and from South African stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union received at least 10 early-model Mustangs and tested them in combat. Some reports suggest that other Mustangs that were abandoned in Russia after the famous "shuttle missions" were repaired and used by the Soviet Air Force, but not in frontline service.
Sri Lanka
[citation needed]
Sweden
Sweden's Flygvapnet first recuperated four of the P-51s (two P-51Bs and two early P-51Ds) that had been diverted to Sweden during missions over Europe. In February 1945, Sweden purchased 50 P-51Ds designated J 26, which were delivered by American pilots in April and assigned to the F 16 wing at Uppsala as interceptors. In early 1946, the F 4 wing at Östersund was equipped with a second batch of 90 P-51Ds. A final batch of 21 airplanes was purchased in 1948. In all, 161 J 26s served in the Swedish Air Force during the late 1940s. About a dozen were modified for photo reconnaissance and re-designated S 26. A few of these aircraft participated in the top secret Swedish mapping of new Soviet military installations at the Baltic coast in 1946-47, a project that entailed many intentional violations of Soviet airspace. However, the Mustang could outdive any Soviet fighter of that era, so no S 26 was lost in these missions. The J 26s were replaced by De Havilland Vampires around 1950. The S 26s were replaced by S 29Cs in the early 1950s.

A restored Swiss Air Force P-51. Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force operated a few USAAF P-51s which had been impounded by Swiss authorities during World War II after the pilots were forced to land in neutral Switzerland. After the war, Switzerland also bought 130 P-51s for $4,000 each. They served until 1958.
United Kingdom
The RAF was the first air force to operate the P-51 which was originally designed to meet RAF requirements. The first P-51As (RAF Mustang Is) entered service in 1941, wearing the standard RAF fighter markings. Due to poor high-altitude performance, the Mustangs were soon transferred to Army co-operation and fighter reconnaissance duties. On 27 July 1942, sixteen RAF Mustangs undertook their first long-range reconnaissance mission over Germany. During Operation Jubilee, the Dieppe Raid (19 August 1942), four British and Canadian Mustang squadrons, including No. 26 Squadron RAF saw action. By 1943/1944, British Mustangs were used extensively to seek out V-1 sites. The final RAF Mustang I and Mustang II machines were struck off charge in 1945. The RAF operated several Mustang III (P-51B/C) machines, the first units converting to the type in late 1943/1944. Mustang III units were operational until the end of World War II, though many units had already converted to the Mustang IV (P-51D/K). RAF pilots preferred the Mustang III (with Malcolm hood), but the RAF re-equipped with Mustang IVs. As the Mustang was a Lend-Lease type, all aircraft still on RAF charge at the end of the war were either returned to the USAAF "on paper" or retained by the RAF for scrapping. The final Mustangs were retired from RAF use in 1947.
Uruguay
Uruguay (FAU) used 25 F-51D Mustangs from 1950 to 1960 — some were subsequently sold to Bolivia.
Venezuela
Venezuela (FAV) used only a sole Mustang which was acquired from another Latin American country

'''p51's and civil aviation'''

Many P-51s were sold as surplus after the war, often for as little as $1,500. Some were sold to former wartime fliers or other aficionados for personal use, while others were modified for air racing.[32]

One of the most prominent Mustangs involved in air racing was a surplus P-51C purchased by Paul Mantz, a film stunt pilot. The aircraft was modified by creating a "wet wing", sealing the wing to create a giant fuel tank in each wing, which eliminated the need for fuel stops or drag-inducing drop tanks. This Mustang, called "Blaze of Noon", came in first in the 1946 and 1947 Bendix Air Races, second in the 1948 Bendix and third in the 1949 Bendix. He also set a U.S. coast-to-coast record in 1947. The Mantz Mustang was sold to Charles F. Blair Jr (future husband of Maureen O'Hara) and re-named "Excaliber III". Blair used it to set a New York-to-London record in 1951. Later that same year he flew from Norway to Fairbanks, Alaska, via the North Pole, proving that navigation via sun sights was possible over the magnetic north pole region. For this feat, he was awarded the Harmon Trophy and the Air Force was forced to change its thoughts on a possible Soviet air strike from the north. This Mustang now resides in the National Air and Space Museum at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

The most prominent firm to convert Mustangs to civilian use was Trans-Florida Aviation, later renamed Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which produced the Cavalier Mustang. Modifications included a taller tailfin and wingtip tanks. A number of conversions included a Cavalier Mustang specialty: a "tight" second seat added in the space formerly occupied by the military radio and fuselage fuel tank.

P-51D of the CAF's Dixie WingIronically, in the late 1960s and early 1970s when the United States Department of Defense wished to supply aircraft to South American countries and later Indonesia, for close air support and counter insurgency, it turned to Cavalier to return some of their civilian conversions back to updated military specifications.

The P-51 is perhaps the most sought after of all warbirds on the civilian market; the average price usually exceeds $1 million, even for only partially restored aircraft.[33] Some privately owned P-51s are still flying, often associated with organizations such as the Commemorative Air Force (formerly the Confederate Air Force).

== Variants ==

NA-73X
The initial prototype was designated the NA-73X by the manufacturer, North American Aviation.

Mustang I
The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters. This aircraft was named Mustang I by the British. A second British contract for 300 more Mustang Is was assigned a model number of NA-83 by North American.
XP-51
Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAF were designated XP-51.
P-51
In September 1940, 150 aircraft designated NA-91 by North American were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named the Apache although this name was dropped early-on for Mustang. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. They were equipped with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano-Suiza Mk II cannon instead of machine guns. A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as photo reconnaissance aircraft and designated F-6A. The British would fit a number of Mustang I fighters with photographic reconnaissance equipment as well. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with the Packard-built Merlin engine and were designated by North American as model NA-101 and by the USAAF initially as the XP-78, but re-designated quickly to XP-51B.
In early 1942, the USAAF ordered a lot of 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A. North American assigned the aircraft the model number NA-97. This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

Following the A-36A order the USAAF ordered 310 model NA-99 fighters that were designated P-51A by the USAAF. and Mustang II by the RAF. A number of this lot of aircraft were equipped with K-24 cameras and designated F-6B. All these models of the Mustang were equipped with Allison V-1710 engines except the prototype XP-51B.

Beginning with the model NA-102 Mustang the Packard built Merlin V-1650 engine replaced the Allison. In the summer of 1943 Mustang production was begun at a new plant in Dallas, Texas as well as at the existing facility in Inglewood, California. The model NA-102 was produced as the P-51B in Inglewood while the NA-103 as the P-51C was produced at Dallas. The RAF named these models Mustang III. Again, a number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo Reconnaissance and designated F-6C.

The prototypes of the bubble canopy change were designated model NA-106 by North American and P-51D by the USAAF. The production version, while retaining the P-51D designation, was assigned a model number NA-109 by North American. The "D" became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A variation of the P-51D equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller was designated the P-51K. The photo versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectfully. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the "D" model and Mustang IVA to "K" models.

As the USAAF specifications required airframe design to a higher load factor than that used by British for their fighters, consideration was given to re-designing the Mustang to the lower British requirements in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft and thus improve performance. In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to do the re-design as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. The designation XP-51F was assigned for prototypes powered with V-1650 engines and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disk brakes, and a larger canopy. A third prototype was added to the development that was powered by an Allison V-1710 engine. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. As the engine was insufficiently developed the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. A small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V.

The final production Mustang, the P-51H embodied the experience gained in the development of the lightweight XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, model NA-126 and with minor differences NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak which was probably the fastest production piston engine fighter to see service. The P-51H used the Merlin V-1659-9 engine, equipped with Simmons automatic boost control and water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2,218 horsepower. Some of the weight savings inherited from the XP-51F and XP-51G were invested in lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, greatly reducing the tendency to yaw, and in restoring the fuselage fuel tank. The canopy was changed back to more nearly resemble the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was improved. The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan and 2,000 were ordered to be built at the Inglewood plant. With the solution to the problem of yaw control, the P-51H was now considered a suitable candidate for testing as an aircraft carrier based fighter; but with the end of the war, the testing was cut short, and production was halted after 555 aircraft were built. Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat. One aircraft was given to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was re-serialled BuNo 09064 and used by the Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, due to the lack of experience with durability of the lighter airframe under combat conditions as well as limited numbers in the USAF inventory.[35]

With the cutback in production the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

== Production ==

Source: U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909[36]
NA.73X Prototype: One built
P-51: 150 built
P-51A: 310 built at Inglewood, California
P-51B: 1,988 built at Inglewood
P-51C: 1,750 built at Dallas, Texas
P-51D: A total of 8,156 were built: 6,502 at Inglewood, 1,454 at Dallas and 200 by CAC at Fisherman's Bend, Australia
XP-51F: Three built
XP-51G: Two built
P-51H: 555 built at Inglewood
XP-51J: Two built

P-51D being assembled, Inglewood CA.[37]P-51K: 1,500 built
P-51L: None built - cancelled
P-51M: One built at Dallas
Mustang I: 620 built
Mustang III: 852 built
Mustang IV: 281 built
Mustang IVA: 595 built
Total number built: 15,875 (among American fighter aircraft second only to the P-47 Thunderbolt)

== Survivors ==

Among the 287 current airframes and the 154 "flying" Mustangs are the following:[38]

XP-51 41-038 Original prototype on display, Oshkosh
P-51A-1NA Mustang in storage for restoration, Kermit Weeks, Polk City FL
P-51A-10-NA Mustang now flying and marked as "Miss Virginia" Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca [39]
A-36 Mustang Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51C-10-NT Mustang flying as "Ina the Macon Belle" of Lt. Lee Archer, the only 5 victory ace of the "Tuskegee Airmen" 332nd FG, 302nd FS. Kermit Weeks, Tamiami FL.
P-51D Mustang, Olympic flight museum, Olympia, Wa. In flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, IN. In flying condition, served with the North Dakota, Alabama, and Kentucky Air National Guards.
P-51 Mustang (Mk IV), Vintage Wings of Canada, Gatineau, Québec.
P-51D Mustang, N167F, Scandinavia Historic Flight, painted as "Old Crow", the aircraft of one of the 8th AF aces, Col. Clarence E. "Bud" Anderson of the 357th Fighter Group, 363rd Fighter Squadron.[40]
P-51D Mustang, SE-BIL, "It's About Time", based in Sweden.[41]
P-51D Mustang, (P-51D-20NA) Cavanaugh Flight Museum, Addison, Texas. The aircraft is in flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, 'Spam Can' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51D Mustang, 'Wee Willy II' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
"Ole Yeller", flown by John Bagley at an airshow in Rexburg, ID.P-51D Mustang Marked as under restoration Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51H Mustang 44-64415 Flying, Whittington Bros, Fort Lauderdale FL
P-51D "Old Yeller" - Formerly owned by Bob Hoover. In flying condition. Currently owned by John Bagley of Rexburg, ID and displayed at the Legacy Flight Museum (http://www.legacyflightmuseum.com/).
CA-17 Mk.20 A68-1, flying, Wiley Sanders, Troy AL
CA-18 Kk.21 A68-104, VH-BOB, flying, Bob Eastgate, Australia
P-51D Mustang, G-BTCD S/NUMBER 44-73419 - Painted to resemble 44-13704, "Ferocious Frankie", Operated by the Old Flying Machine Company, Duxford, Cambridgshire, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDDGHC9Y1F4
P-51D Mustang, G-SIJJ, 44-072035 - painted to resemble 4464076 "Jumpin Jacques", Operated by the Hangar 11 Collection, North Weald, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROuCJ9REAGw

== Specifications ==

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 32 ft 3 in (9.83 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 13 ft 8 in (4.17 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,635 lb (3,465 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,200 lb (4,175 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 12,100 lb (5,490 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-7 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,695 hp (1,265 kW)
Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0163
Drag area: 3.80 ft² (0.35 m²)
Aspect ratio: 5.83
Performance

Maximum speed: 437 mph (703 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Cruise speed: 362 mph (580 km/h)
Stall speed: 100 mph (160 km/h)
Range: 1,650 mi (2,755 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,900 ft (12,770 m)
Rate of climb: 3,200 ft/min (16.3 m/s)
Wing loading: 39 lb/ft² (192 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (300 W/kg)
Lift-to-drag ratio: 14.6
Recommended Mach limit 0.8
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns; 400 rounds per gun for the two inboard guns; 270 per outboard gun
2 hardpoints for up to 2,000 lb (907 kg)
10 × 5 in (127 mm) rockets

[edit] P-51H Mustang
Data from The Great Book of Fighters[42]

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 11 ft 1 in (3.38 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,040 lb (3,195 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,500 lb (4,310 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 11,500 lb (5,215 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-9 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,380 hp (1,030 kW) military, 2,218 hp (1,655 kW) WEP
Performance

Maximum speed: 487 mph (784 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Range: 1,160 mi (1,865 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,600 ft (12,680 m)
Rate of climb: 3,300 ft/min (16.8 m/s)
Wing loading: 40.4 lb/ft² (197.4 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (385 W/kg)
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns with 1,880 total rounds (400 rounds for each on the inner pair, and 270 rounds for each of the outer two pair), or 4 of the same guns with 1,600 total rounds (400 per gun).

File:Bott4.jpg

2008-06-30T00:04:56Z

Trigger2:

Immelman

2008-06-30T00:00:17Z

Trigger2:

[[Category:Basic Fighter Maneuvers]]
The Immelmann turn refers to two quite different aircraft maneuvers.

The maneuver nowadays usually called an "Immelmann" has, in fact, no connection with the World War I German flying Ace Max Immelmann.

Similar to a 'Split-S' manuver (reverse of).

[[Image:Immelmann_turn.png‎]]

== In Aerobatics ==

In modern aerobatical parlance, an Immelmann turn (also known as a roll-off-the-top, or simply an Immelmann) is an aerobatic maneuver of little practical use in aerial combat, and is a different maneuver altogether from the original dogfighting tactic of World War I from which it derives its name.
Essentially, the aerobatic Immelmann comprises an ascending half-loop followed by a half-roll, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a higher altitude.

To successfully execute the aerobatic Immelmann turn, the pilot accelerates to sufficient airspeed to perform a loop in the aircraft. The pilot then pulls the aircraft into a climb, and continues to pull back on the controls as the aircraft climbs. Rudder and ailerons must be used to keep the half-loop straight when viewed from the ground. As the aircraft passes over the point at which the climb was commenced, it should be inverted and a half loop will have been executed. Sufficient airspeed must be maintained to recover without losing altitude, and at the top of the loop the pilot then executes a half-roll to regain normal, upright aircraft orientation. As a result, the aircraft is now at a higher altitude and has changed course 180 degrees.

It should be stressed that not all aircraft are capable of (or certified for) this maneuver, due to insufficient engine power, or engine design that precludes flying inverted (usually piston engines that have an open oil pan).

The Immelmann turn has become one of the most popular aerobatic maneuvers in the world, being commonly used in airshows all over the world. However, the aerobatic maneuver is of little use in modern dogfighting, because modern high thrust fighters can quickly initiate sustained vertical maneuvering from level flight, and slow targets are highly vulnerable to air-to-air missiles. The aerobatic maneuver also involves rapid "energy loss" (loss of airspeed) even if the nose is pushed down sharply as the maneuver is completed (This maneuver, an aerobatic Immelman followed by a dive back to the original altitude is another aerobatic maneuver called the "Half-Cuban-Eight").

The Immelmann is contrasted with the Split S maneuver, which is a half-roll followed by a descending half-loop, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a lower altitude

== Historical Combat Manuver ==

In any case, the World War I "Immelmann turn" was a far less polished maneuver. This attacking maneuver was probably used by Max Immelmann and may have been originated by him. It was certainly used by other World War I fighter pilots. After making a high speed diving attack on an enemy, the attacker would then zoom climb back up past the enemy aircraft, and before stalling, used full rudder to yaw (maneuver around the aircraft's "normal axis") his aircraft around. This put his aircraft facing down at the enemy aircraft, making another high speed diving pass possible. This is a difficult maneuver to perform properly, as it involves precise control of the aircraft at low speed. With practice and proper use of all of the fighter's controls, the maneuver could be used to re-position the attacking aircraft to dive back down in any direction desired. This form of "Immelmann turn" was called Renversement by French pilots. The modern aerobatic maneuvers that most resemble the World War I Immelmann are the "wingover", and the "hammer-head turn".

As a practical combat tactic, the Immelmann had already fallen somewhat into disfavor by 1917/1918, as it became obvious that the zooming aircraft presented an easy target as it hung nearly motionless at the top of the maneuver - provided the aircraft under attack was sufficiently powerful and well armed to follow his adversary, or was fitted with flexible forward and upward firing guns. The Immelmann could still be used in World War II by fighters attacking unescorted bombers that could not follow the fighter up into the climb, as long as the zoom climb took the fighter beyond the range of the bomber's defensive guns

File:Immelmann turn.png

2008-06-29T23:59:17Z

Trigger2: uploaded a new version of "Image:Immelmann turn.png"

File:Immelmann turn.png

2008-06-29T23:58:48Z

Trigger2:

Split-S

2008-06-29T23:57:00Z

Trigger2:

[[Category:Basic Fighter Maneuvers]]

The split S is a very simple fighter manuver that you will find useful in MANY different situations.

The Split S is an air combat maneuver mostly used to disengage from combat. To execute a Split S, the pilot half-rolls his aircraft inverted and executes a descending half-loop, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a lower altitude.

The Split S is taught to be used in dog fighting when the pilot has the opportunity to withdraw from battle. It can be an effective tactic to prevent an enemy behind (between eight o'clock and four o'clock positions) from gaining gun lock while one is disengaging from a fight.

The Split S maneuver is contrasted with the Immelmann turn, which is an ascending half-loop that finishes with a half-roll out, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a higher altitude. The Split S is also called a reversed Immelmann turn, or can be listed with a hyphen as Split-S.

To perform a split S, simply roll your stick to one side (left or right) and GENTLY pull up on your stick, if you yank, jerk, or add too much elevator/ailron at once, your plane can do some weird things.

[[Image:Split S.png]]

High Yo-yo

2008-06-29T23:52:28Z

Trigger2:

[[Category:Basic Fighter Maneuvers]]
A high yo-yo is a done by going into a climbing turn. At about the 90 degree point of your turn, you roll partially inverted and finish the turn diving back to your original altitude. It is used to convert speed into altitude during the initial part of the turn with the lower speed allowing you to make a tighter turn. Near the apex of your turn, you then convert the altitude you gained back into speed by going back down to your initial altitude

Immelman

2008-06-29T23:50:25Z

Trigger2:

[[Category:Basic Fighter Maneuvers]]
The Immelmann turn refers to two quite different aircraft maneuvers.

The maneuver nowadays usually called an "Immelmann" has, in fact, no connection with the World War I German flying Ace Max Immelmann.

Similar to a 'Split-S' manuver (reverse of).

== In Aerobatics ==

In modern aerobatical parlance, an Immelmann turn (also known as a roll-off-the-top, or simply an Immelmann) is an aerobatic maneuver of little practical use in aerial combat, and is a different maneuver altogether from the original dogfighting tactic of World War I from which it derives its name.
Essentially, the aerobatic Immelmann comprises an ascending half-loop followed by a half-roll, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a higher altitude.

To successfully execute the aerobatic Immelmann turn, the pilot accelerates to sufficient airspeed to perform a loop in the aircraft. The pilot then pulls the aircraft into a climb, and continues to pull back on the controls as the aircraft climbs. Rudder and ailerons must be used to keep the half-loop straight when viewed from the ground. As the aircraft passes over the point at which the climb was commenced, it should be inverted and a half loop will have been executed. Sufficient airspeed must be maintained to recover without losing altitude, and at the top of the loop the pilot then executes a half-roll to regain normal, upright aircraft orientation. As a result, the aircraft is now at a higher altitude and has changed course 180 degrees.

It should be stressed that not all aircraft are capable of (or certified for) this maneuver, due to insufficient engine power, or engine design that precludes flying inverted (usually piston engines that have an open oil pan).

The Immelmann turn has become one of the most popular aerobatic maneuvers in the world, being commonly used in airshows all over the world. However, the aerobatic maneuver is of little use in modern dogfighting, because modern high thrust fighters can quickly initiate sustained vertical maneuvering from level flight, and slow targets are highly vulnerable to air-to-air missiles. The aerobatic maneuver also involves rapid "energy loss" (loss of airspeed) even if the nose is pushed down sharply as the maneuver is completed (This maneuver, an aerobatic Immelman followed by a dive back to the original altitude is another aerobatic maneuver called the "Half-Cuban-Eight").

The Immelmann is contrasted with the Split S maneuver, which is a half-roll followed by a descending half-loop, resulting in level flight in the exact opposite direction at a lower altitude

== Historical Combat Manuver ==

In any case, the World War I "Immelmann turn" was a far less polished maneuver. This attacking maneuver was probably used by Max Immelmann and may have been originated by him. It was certainly used by other World War I fighter pilots. After making a high speed diving attack on an enemy, the attacker would then zoom climb back up past the enemy aircraft, and before stalling, used full rudder to yaw (maneuver around the aircraft's "normal axis") his aircraft around. This put his aircraft facing down at the enemy aircraft, making another high speed diving pass possible. This is a difficult maneuver to perform properly, as it involves precise control of the aircraft at low speed. With practice and proper use of all of the fighter's controls, the maneuver could be used to re-position the attacking aircraft to dive back down in any direction desired. This form of "Immelmann turn" was called Renversement by French pilots. The modern aerobatic maneuvers that most resemble the World War I Immelmann are the "wingover", and the "hammer-head turn".

As a practical combat tactic, the Immelmann had already fallen somewhat into disfavor by 1917/1918, as it became obvious that the zooming aircraft presented an easy target as it hung nearly motionless at the top of the maneuver - provided the aircraft under attack was sufficiently powerful and well armed to follow his adversary, or was fitted with flexible forward and upward firing guns. The Immelmann could still be used in World War II by fighters attacking unescorted bombers that could not follow the fighter up into the climb, as long as the zoom climb took the fighter beyond the range of the bomber's defensive guns

P51 Mustang

2008-06-29T23:46:06Z

Trigger2: New page: The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 b...

The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft.

== Overview ==
The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority from early 1944. It also saw limited service against the Japanese in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter, but was relegated to a ground attack role when superseded by jet fighters early in the conflict. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s.

As well as being economical to produce, the Mustang was a fast, well-made and highly durable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and (the P-51D) were armed with six of the aircraft version of the .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns.

After World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. The Mustang's reputation was such that, in the mid-1960s, Ford Motor Company's Designer John Najjar proposed the name for a new youth-oriented coupe after the fighter

== Genesis ==

In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who, as the "Air Member for Development and Production", was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938, Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee"), and one of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time the choice was very limited: none of the U.S. aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply.

North American Aviation (NAA) was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF, but were otherwise underutilized. NAA President "Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss.

Kindelberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time than it would take to set up a production line for the P-40. By now the executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP), Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300

== Development and Design ==

The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design followed the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds.[4] Another was the use of a new radiator design (one Curtiss had been unable to make work) that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect". Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, it used the GALCIT 10-foot wind tunnel at Cal Tech. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although historians and researchers dismiss the allegation of stolen technology; such claims are likely moot in any event, as North American had purchased Curtiss’ complete set of P-40 and XP-46 wind tunnel data and flight test reports for US$56,000.[5]

While the United States Army Air Corps could block any sales it considered detrimental or not in the interest of the United States, the NA-73 represented a special case. In order to ensure deliveries were uninterrupted, an arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its aircraft in exchange for NAA providing two free examples to the USAAC for evaluation.

The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed — an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .30 caliber Browning (7.62 mm) and two .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) machineguns in the wings and two .50 M2s in the chin.

== Allison-engined mustangs ==

'''Mustang I/P51'''

It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was markedly reduced at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the single speed, single stage supercharger of the Allison V-1710 engine, where power diminished rapidly above the critical altitude rating. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric; these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft, in particular, the Air Corp's four-engine bombers. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simpler supercharger would suffice. The turbocharger proved impractical in the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate supercharger available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters, using the same powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 ft and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British aircraft's more powerful engine.[6]

The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters, named Mustang I by the British (the name being selected by an anonymous member of the Purchasing Commission). Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAC for evaluation were designated XP-51.[7] About 20 Mustang Is were delivered to the RAF, making their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but were thought to be of limited value as fighters due to their poor performance above 15,000 ft.

A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft, designated NA-91 by North American, were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named Apache, although this was soon dropped and the RAF name, Mustang, adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the wing-mounted machine guns were removed and replaced with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano Mk II cannon.

A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as F-6A photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with Packard-built Merlin engines mounted behind the cockpit, in the fashion of the P-39.[8] This was identified as Model NA-101 by North American and XP-78 by the USAAF, later redesignated XP-51B.

'''A-36 Apache/Invader'''

At the same time, the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack aircraft and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache, which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

== Merlin Engined mustangs ==

'''P51B/C'''

In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang and found its performance inadequate at higher altitudes. As such it was to be used to replace the Tomahawk in Army Cooperation Command squadrons but the commanding officer was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. The Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid R. Freeman, lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the U.S. 8th Air Force in Britain.[9]

The high-altitude performance improvement was astonishing: the Mustang X (AM208) reached 433 mph (697 km/h) at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft.[10]After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang, with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison, was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C, B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943. The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B reached 441 mph/709.70 km/h (exactly two-thirds supersonic speed at altitude) at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and the subsequent extended range made possible by the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang to be introduced as a bomber escort.

P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI).

Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943.

A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C

'''P51D/K'''

One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been recognized by the British after the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods." Eventually all Mk IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods.

A better solution to the problem was the "teardrop" or "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit, resulting in substantially improved vision to the rear. This led to the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang.

A common misconception is that the cutting down of the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability that required the addition of a dorsal fin to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both earlier Bs and Cs and subsequent D/K models also experienced low speed handling problems that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. One report stated:

"Unless a dorsal fin is installed on the P-51B, P-51C and P-51D airplanes, a snap roll may result when attempting a slow roll. The horizontal stabilizer will not withstand the effects of a snap roll. To prevent recurrence the stabilizer should be reinforced in accordance with T.O. 01-60J-18 dated 8 April 1944 and a dorsal fin should be installed. Dorsal fin kits are being made available to overseas activities"

While some existing aircraft do not have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank — reducing the need for the dorsal fin.

Ground crew arming the P-51 with six M2 machine guns and .50 caliber ammunitionAmong other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds each, and the others had 270 rounds, for a total of 1,880. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at the time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to ten rockets per plane.

The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. By the time of the Korean war most F-51s were equipped with "uncuffed" Hamilton Standard propellers with wider, blunt tipped blades. The photo reconnaissance versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectively. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models.

The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in the theater. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models.

Concern over the USAAF's inability to escort B-29s all the way to mainland Japan resulted in the highly classified "Seahorse" project. In late 1944 Naval Aviator (and later test pilot) Bob Elder flew carrier suitability trials with a modified P-51D. The project was canceled after U.S. Marines secured the Japanese island of Iwo Jima and its airfields, making it possible for standard P-51D models to accompany B-29s all the way to the Japanese home islands and back. ("Fly Navy" - Phil Kaplan, page 51)

During 1945–48, P-51Ds were also built under licence in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation

== The "LightWeight" mustangs ==

'''XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J'''

The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by the British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost.

A subtle change made in the lightweight Mustangs was the use of an improved NACA 66 series airfoil and a slightly thinner wing than that used by earlier Mustangs.[12]

In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disc brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines.

A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production.

'''P51H'''

The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service.

The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost control with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h or Mach 0.74) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m).

The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:

P-51H-1-NA 44-64160 – 44-64179
P-51H-5-NA 44-64180 – 44-64459
P-51H-10-NA 44-64460 – 44-64714
Additional orders, already on the books, were cancelled. With the cutback in production, the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the U.S. Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity.

Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's next generation of jet-powered fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the first straight-winged variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing designs.

== Operational history ==

'''US operational service'''

At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective.

Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers too vulnerable, contrary to Giulio Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. Due to the high casualty rates, the Luftwaffe soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its raids over Germany.

Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it costly to continue such long-range raids without adequate fighter escort.

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European theater due to its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on more than even terms, but did not at the time have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single, well-understood, reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could accompany the bombers all the way to Germany and back.

Ferry pilot Florene Watson, Women Airforce Service Pilots, warms up a P-51Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task of escorting bombers all the way to the deepest targets, thus complementing the more numerous P-47s until sufficient Mustangs became available. The Eighth Air Force immediately began to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converted its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until by the end of the year 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang.[13]

Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid U.S. fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in fall 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.

Lt. Vernon R Richards, 374th FS, 361st FG. Early production P-51D-5-NA without tail fillet.Beginning in late February 1944 Eighth Air Force fighter units began systematic strafing attacks on German airfields that picked up in frequency and intensity throughout the spring with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy battlefield. In general these were conducted by units returning from escort missions, but beginning in March many groups also were assigned airfield attacks instead of bomber support. On April 15 VIII FC began Operation Jackpot, attacks on specific Luftwaffe fighter airfields, and on May 21 these attacks were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and rolling stock used by the Germans for movements of materiel and troops in missions dubbed "Chattanooga".[14] The P-51 also excelled at this mission, although losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially due to the vulnerability of the Mustang's cooling system to small arms hits. Like other fighters using liquid cooled engines, the Mustang's coolant system could be punctured by a hit from a single bullet.

The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency helped cripple the Luftwaffe's fighter force. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by summer 1944.

Chuck Yeager's P-51D-15-NA Glamorous Glennis III, is the aircraft in which the future test pilot achieved most of his 12.5 killsP-51s also distinguished themselves against advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51, but as all aircraft are, were vulnerable on take-off. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach. On 7 October 1944 Lt. Urban Drew, of the 365th Fighter Group, went one better. During a fighter sweep he surprised two Me 262s on take-off and shot them down. On the same day Hubert Zemke, now flying Mustangs, shot down what he thought was a Bf 109, only for the gun camera film to reveal a Me 262.[15] On 1 November 1944, the Mustang pilots once again demonstrated that the threat could be contained with numbers. While flying as escorts for B-17s, the 20th Fighter Group was attacked by a lone Me 262, which destroyed a solitary P-51. The Me 262 then attempted to attack the bombers, only to be cut off by a mixed formation of P-51s and P-47s. The Fighter Groups competed for the kill. Eventually a P-47 pilot of the 56th, and Mustang pilots Lt Gerbe and Groce of the 352nd Fighter Groups, shared the kill.[16]

The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 2520 aircraft.[17]

P-51Cs and Ds of 118 Tac/R Squadron, Laohwangping, China. June 1945. (Fred Poats photo).One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft claimed destroyed. This included 550 claimed in aerial combat and 466 claimed on the ground.[18]

In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. Martin Bowman reports that in the ETO Mustangs flew 213,873 sorties and lost 2,520 aircraft to all causes.[citation needed]

P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in close-support and escort missions as well as operating in the Tactical Photo Reconnaissance role.

[edit] Post-World War II

F-51 Mustang taxis through a puddle in Korea, laden with bombs and rocketsIn the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status.

In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG).

USAF F-51D dropping napalm on a target in North KoreaDuring the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea. With the aircraft being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load.

At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952.

West Virginia Air National Guard F-51D. Note: postwar "uncuffed" propeller unit.F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and Air National Guard throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was P-51D-30-NA Serial No. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia ANG in 1957. This aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is, however, painted as P-51D-15-NA Ser No. 44-15174.[19]

The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF dumped hundreds of P-51s out onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft both in the U.S. and overseas. In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes but were fitted with new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio fit, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger wing which could carry six 0.50-inch machine guns and a total of eight underwing hardpoints. Two 1000-pound bombs and six five-inch rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy, but carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang was a two-seat dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale to South American and Asian nations through the Military Assistance Program (MAP), they were delivered to the USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers (67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).[19]

The last U.S. military use of the F-51 was in 1968, when the U. S. Army employed a vintage F-51D (44-72990) as a chase aircraft for the Lockheed YAH-56 Cheyenne armed helicopter project. This aircraft was so successful that the Army ordered two F-51Ds from Cavalier in 1968 for use at Fort Rucker as chase planes. They were assigned the serials 68-15795 and 65-15796. These F-51s had wingtip fuel tanks and were unarmed. Following the end of the Cheyenne program, these two chase aircraft were used for other projects. One of them (68-15795) was fitted with a 106-mm recoilless rifle for evaluation of the weapon's value in attacking fortified ground targets.[20]

The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid 1980s with smaller air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally being retired by the Dominican Air Force (FAD) in 1984

'''Non-US service '''

The P-51 Mustang remained in service with more than 30 air forces after World War II; the last was retired from active service in the early 1980s. Here is a list of some of the countries that used the P-51 Mustang.

Argentina
[citation needed]
Australia

Australian P-51Ds in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, in 1947The first Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) unit to use Mustangs was No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which converted to them at its base in Italy in November 1944. The RAAF had also decided to replace its P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific Area with P-51s, and ordered a total of about 500 Mustangs, which were to be built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), the only non-U.S. production line. In 1944, 100 P-51Ds were shipped from the U.S. in kit form to inaugurate production at Fishermans Bend, in Melbourne. CAC assembled 80 of these under the designation CA-17/Mark 20, the remaining 20 being kept unassembled as spare parts.
CAC then produced 120 more P-51Ds on its own (reduced from an initial order for 170), which it designated CA-18/Mark 21, 22 or 23. (The RAAF used the serial number prefix A68 for all P-51s.) The Mk 22 was a photo reconnaissance variant and the Mk 23 had newer model British-made Merlin engines. In addition, 84 P-51Ks were also shipped direct to the RAAF from the USA. However, only 17 Mustangs reached the front line squadrons of the First Tactical Air Force by the time World War II ended in August 1945. The RAAF subsequently cancelled further orders for about 200 Mustangs. No. 77 Squadron RAAF also used P-51s extensively during the first years of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.[22]
Bolivia
Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.
Canada

Restored P-51D in the markings of No. 402 "City of Winnipeg" RCAF Auxiliary SquadronCanada had five squadrons equipped with Mustangs during World War II. RCAF No. 400, 414 and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk 1s (1942-1944) and nos. 441 and 442 flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945. Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular: No. 416 "Lynx" and no. 417 "City of Windsor" and six auxiliary fighter squadrons: no. 402 "City of Winnipeg," no. 403 "City of Calgary," no. 420 "City of London," no. 424 "City of Hamilton," no. 442 "City of Vancouver" and no. 443 "City of New Westminster." The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956; a number of special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.
China
Some of the P-51Cs and Ds were given to China by early 1945. Delivered from the U.S. 10th AF in India, those Mustangs were equipped to the 5th, 3rd and 4th FG of CAF to attack the Japanese targets in China. After the war, they were also used against the Chinese Communist Forces. When the Chinese Nationalist retreated from the Mainland, Many of them ended up in Taiwan when their pilots sided with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Further P-51s were acquired from the USAF and other sources. Some P-51s were subsequently lost to the Communist People's Liberation Army Air Force during the Nationalist retreat from the Chinese mainland.
Costa Rica
The Costa Rica Air Force flew four F-51s from 1955–64.
Cuba
Some reports claim that under the terms of the 1947 Rio Pact, Cuba was supplied with F-51D Mustangs. These reports appear to be erroneous. However, after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba's Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria illegally acquired three ex-civilian Mustangs reputedly being bought in Canada by envoys of Fidel Castro. The P-51 Mustangs did not enter service soon enough to see any action during the Cuban revolution. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Mustangs were damaged on the ground, and were repaired too late to participate in the fighting. They served with the Cuban air force until they were replaced with Russian-built equipment in the early 1960s.[23]
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (FAD) was the largest Latin American air force to employ the F-51D with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44 ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948 and a further Mustang obtained from an unknown source.[24] It was the last nation to have the F-51 Mustang in service, with some remaining in use as late as 1984.
El Salvador
The FAS purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual control Cavalier TF-51) featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service.
France
In late 1944, the first French unit began its transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service until the early 1950s when they were replaced by jet fighters.
Guatemala
Guatemala (FAG) had 30 P-51s in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.
Haiti
Haiti had four Mustangs when President Paul Eugène Magloire was in power between 1950 and 1956, with the last retired in 1973-74 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.[25]
Honduras
Seven Mustangs were acquired from private sources to fight in the so-called "Football War."[citation needed]
Indonesia
Indonesia acquired some F-51s from the departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949/1950. The Mustangs were used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF and RNZAF) forces during the Indonesian confrontation in the early 1960s. The last time Mustangs were to be deployed for military purposes was a shipment of six Cavalier II Mustangs (without tip tanks) delivered to Indonesia in 1972-1973, which were replaced in 1976.[26][27]
Israel
A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by Israel in 1948 for use in the War of Independence (1948) and quickly established themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and Nicaragua but were replaced by jets at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis, Operation Kadesh (1956). Reputedly, during this conflict, one daring Israeli pilot literally cut communications between Suez City and the Egyptian front lines by using his Mustang's propeller on the telephone wires.[28]
Italy
During the war, from 1943-45, Italian pilots faced an increasing number of Mustangs, but only in the last years were they the main threat, because P-38s and P-47s were still present in great numbers. Mustangs were generally quite superior to Italian fighters, both indigenous types and the Bf 109s given by Germany, but some Mustangs were lost as well in those aerial battles. No Italian pilot flew Mustangs before the end of the war.
Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds; deliveries were slowed by the Korean war, but between September 1947 and January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 51 Stormo (Wing) and some in schools and experimentals units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter, P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics. Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully utilized and several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated even compared to the other primary postwar Italian fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the Mustang began in summer 1958.[29]
Japan
The P-51C-11-NT "Evalina" marked as "278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) flown by 26th FS, 51st FG, was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly landed on Suchon Airfield in China which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft, roughly applied Hinomarus and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation centre (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.
Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force received 40 P-51s and flew them in the Indonesian conflict. When the conflict was over Indonesia received some of the ML-KNIL Mustangs.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (GN) gained 26 Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and used them until 1964.
New Zealand

P-51D in No. 3 (Canterbury) TAF livery, performing at 2007 Wings over Wairarapa airshowNew Zealand ordered 320 P-51 Mustangs as a partial replacement of its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theatre. Thirty were delivered in 1945 but the war ended before they entered service. The remainder were retained in the U.S. The 30 received were stored in their packing cases until 1950 when put into service with the New Zealand Territorial Air Force (TAF)'s Auckland , Wellington, Canterbury and Otago squadrons. The TAF was disbanded in 1957 and the Mustangs retired, one being retained by 42 Squadron for regular target towing duties, and the remainder being sold for scrap. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron. A Mustang is on display in the RNZAF Museum and three other privately owned Mustangs are airworthy in the country.[22]
Philippines

P-51 Mustangs of the Philippine Air Force circa 1950's. The PAF had problems with the plane's retracting rear wheel and finally modified the mechanism into a fixed "down" position even in flightThe Philippines acquired P-51 Mustangs after World War II. These became the backbone of the postwar Philippine Army Air Corps and Philippine Air Force and were used extensively during the Huk campaign, fighting against Communist insurgents. Mustangs were also the first aircraft of the Philippine air demonstration squadron, which was formed in 1953 and given the name "The Blue Diamonds" the following year.[30] The Mustangs were replaced by F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s.
Poland
During World War II, five Polish Air Force in Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June 1942) with Mustang Mk Is was Flight B of No. 309 Polish Army-Cooperation Squadron, followed by Flight A in March 1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was renamed No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1943, No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron received Mustangs Mk IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in No. 309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again renamed, as No. 309 Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements. Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned approximately 80 Mustangs Mk IIIs and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the U.S. government.[31]
Somalia
South Africa
The South African Air Force operated a number of Mustang Is and IIs (P-51As) in Italy and the Middle East during World War II. After VE-Day, these machines were soon struck off charge and scrapped. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952/1953.
South Korea
Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy air services during World War II as well as by U.S. advisers led by Major Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from U.S. and from South African stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union received at least 10 early-model Mustangs and tested them in combat. Some reports suggest that other Mustangs that were abandoned in Russia after the famous "shuttle missions" were repaired and used by the Soviet Air Force, but not in frontline service.
Sri Lanka
[citation needed]
Sweden
Sweden's Flygvapnet first recuperated four of the P-51s (two P-51Bs and two early P-51Ds) that had been diverted to Sweden during missions over Europe. In February 1945, Sweden purchased 50 P-51Ds designated J 26, which were delivered by American pilots in April and assigned to the F 16 wing at Uppsala as interceptors. In early 1946, the F 4 wing at Östersund was equipped with a second batch of 90 P-51Ds. A final batch of 21 airplanes was purchased in 1948. In all, 161 J 26s served in the Swedish Air Force during the late 1940s. About a dozen were modified for photo reconnaissance and re-designated S 26. A few of these aircraft participated in the top secret Swedish mapping of new Soviet military installations at the Baltic coast in 1946-47, a project that entailed many intentional violations of Soviet airspace. However, the Mustang could outdive any Soviet fighter of that era, so no S 26 was lost in these missions. The J 26s were replaced by De Havilland Vampires around 1950. The S 26s were replaced by S 29Cs in the early 1950s.

A restored Swiss Air Force P-51. Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force operated a few USAAF P-51s which had been impounded by Swiss authorities during World War II after the pilots were forced to land in neutral Switzerland. After the war, Switzerland also bought 130 P-51s for $4,000 each. They served until 1958.
United Kingdom
The RAF was the first air force to operate the P-51 which was originally designed to meet RAF requirements. The first P-51As (RAF Mustang Is) entered service in 1941, wearing the standard RAF fighter markings. Due to poor high-altitude performance, the Mustangs were soon transferred to Army co-operation and fighter reconnaissance duties. On 27 July 1942, sixteen RAF Mustangs undertook their first long-range reconnaissance mission over Germany. During Operation Jubilee, the Dieppe Raid (19 August 1942), four British and Canadian Mustang squadrons, including No. 26 Squadron RAF saw action. By 1943/1944, British Mustangs were used extensively to seek out V-1 sites. The final RAF Mustang I and Mustang II machines were struck off charge in 1945. The RAF operated several Mustang III (P-51B/C) machines, the first units converting to the type in late 1943/1944. Mustang III units were operational until the end of World War II, though many units had already converted to the Mustang IV (P-51D/K). RAF pilots preferred the Mustang III (with Malcolm hood), but the RAF re-equipped with Mustang IVs. As the Mustang was a Lend-Lease type, all aircraft still on RAF charge at the end of the war were either returned to the USAAF "on paper" or retained by the RAF for scrapping. The final Mustangs were retired from RAF use in 1947.
Uruguay
Uruguay (FAU) used 25 F-51D Mustangs from 1950 to 1960 — some were subsequently sold to Bolivia.
Venezuela
Venezuela (FAV) used only a sole Mustang which was acquired from another Latin American country

'''p51's and civil aviation'''

Many P-51s were sold as surplus after the war, often for as little as $1,500. Some were sold to former wartime fliers or other aficionados for personal use, while others were modified for air racing.[32]

One of the most prominent Mustangs involved in air racing was a surplus P-51C purchased by Paul Mantz, a film stunt pilot. The aircraft was modified by creating a "wet wing", sealing the wing to create a giant fuel tank in each wing, which eliminated the need for fuel stops or drag-inducing drop tanks. This Mustang, called "Blaze of Noon", came in first in the 1946 and 1947 Bendix Air Races, second in the 1948 Bendix and third in the 1949 Bendix. He also set a U.S. coast-to-coast record in 1947. The Mantz Mustang was sold to Charles F. Blair Jr (future husband of Maureen O'Hara) and re-named "Excaliber III". Blair used it to set a New York-to-London record in 1951. Later that same year he flew from Norway to Fairbanks, Alaska, via the North Pole, proving that navigation via sun sights was possible over the magnetic north pole region. For this feat, he was awarded the Harmon Trophy and the Air Force was forced to change its thoughts on a possible Soviet air strike from the north. This Mustang now resides in the National Air and Space Museum at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

The most prominent firm to convert Mustangs to civilian use was Trans-Florida Aviation, later renamed Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which produced the Cavalier Mustang. Modifications included a taller tailfin and wingtip tanks. A number of conversions included a Cavalier Mustang specialty: a "tight" second seat added in the space formerly occupied by the military radio and fuselage fuel tank.

P-51D of the CAF's Dixie WingIronically, in the late 1960s and early 1970s when the United States Department of Defense wished to supply aircraft to South American countries and later Indonesia, for close air support and counter insurgency, it turned to Cavalier to return some of their civilian conversions back to updated military specifications.

The P-51 is perhaps the most sought after of all warbirds on the civilian market; the average price usually exceeds $1 million, even for only partially restored aircraft.[33] Some privately owned P-51s are still flying, often associated with organizations such as the Commemorative Air Force (formerly the Confederate Air Force).

== Variants ==

NA-73X
The initial prototype was designated the NA-73X by the manufacturer, North American Aviation.

Mustang I
The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters. This aircraft was named Mustang I by the British. A second British contract for 300 more Mustang Is was assigned a model number of NA-83 by North American.
XP-51
Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAF were designated XP-51.
P-51
In September 1940, 150 aircraft designated NA-91 by North American were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named the Apache although this name was dropped early-on for Mustang. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. They were equipped with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano-Suiza Mk II cannon instead of machine guns. A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as photo reconnaissance aircraft and designated F-6A. The British would fit a number of Mustang I fighters with photographic reconnaissance equipment as well. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with the Packard-built Merlin engine and were designated by North American as model NA-101 and by the USAAF initially as the XP-78, but re-designated quickly to XP-51B.
In early 1942, the USAAF ordered a lot of 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A. North American assigned the aircraft the model number NA-97. This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

Following the A-36A order the USAAF ordered 310 model NA-99 fighters that were designated P-51A by the USAAF. and Mustang II by the RAF. A number of this lot of aircraft were equipped with K-24 cameras and designated F-6B. All these models of the Mustang were equipped with Allison V-1710 engines except the prototype XP-51B.

Beginning with the model NA-102 Mustang the Packard built Merlin V-1650 engine replaced the Allison. In the summer of 1943 Mustang production was begun at a new plant in Dallas, Texas as well as at the existing facility in Inglewood, California. The model NA-102 was produced as the P-51B in Inglewood while the NA-103 as the P-51C was produced at Dallas. The RAF named these models Mustang III. Again, a number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo Reconnaissance and designated F-6C.

The prototypes of the bubble canopy change were designated model NA-106 by North American and P-51D by the USAAF. The production version, while retaining the P-51D designation, was assigned a model number NA-109 by North American. The "D" became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A variation of the P-51D equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller was designated the P-51K. The photo versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectfully. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the "D" model and Mustang IVA to "K" models.

As the USAAF specifications required airframe design to a higher load factor than that used by British for their fighters, consideration was given to re-designing the Mustang to the lower British requirements in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft and thus improve performance. In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to do the re-design as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. The designation XP-51F was assigned for prototypes powered with V-1650 engines and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disk brakes, and a larger canopy. A third prototype was added to the development that was powered by an Allison V-1710 engine. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. As the engine was insufficiently developed the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. A small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V.

The final production Mustang, the P-51H embodied the experience gained in the development of the lightweight XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, model NA-126 and with minor differences NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak which was probably the fastest production piston engine fighter to see service. The P-51H used the Merlin V-1659-9 engine, equipped with Simmons automatic boost control and water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2,218 horsepower. Some of the weight savings inherited from the XP-51F and XP-51G were invested in lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, greatly reducing the tendency to yaw, and in restoring the fuselage fuel tank. The canopy was changed back to more nearly resemble the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was improved. The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan and 2,000 were ordered to be built at the Inglewood plant. With the solution to the problem of yaw control, the P-51H was now considered a suitable candidate for testing as an aircraft carrier based fighter; but with the end of the war, the testing was cut short, and production was halted after 555 aircraft were built. Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat. One aircraft was given to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was re-serialled BuNo 09064 and used by the Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, due to the lack of experience with durability of the lighter airframe under combat conditions as well as limited numbers in the USAF inventory.[35]

With the cutback in production the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.

== Production ==

Source: U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909[36]
NA.73X Prototype: One built
P-51: 150 built
P-51A: 310 built at Inglewood, California
P-51B: 1,988 built at Inglewood
P-51C: 1,750 built at Dallas, Texas
P-51D: A total of 8,156 were built: 6,502 at Inglewood, 1,454 at Dallas and 200 by CAC at Fisherman's Bend, Australia
XP-51F: Three built
XP-51G: Two built
P-51H: 555 built at Inglewood
XP-51J: Two built

P-51D being assembled, Inglewood CA.[37]P-51K: 1,500 built
P-51L: None built - cancelled
P-51M: One built at Dallas
Mustang I: 620 built
Mustang III: 852 built
Mustang IV: 281 built
Mustang IVA: 595 built
Total number built: 15,875 (among American fighter aircraft second only to the P-47 Thunderbolt)

== Survivors ==

Among the 287 current airframes and the 154 "flying" Mustangs are the following:[38]

XP-51 41-038 Original prototype on display, Oshkosh
P-51A-1NA Mustang in storage for restoration, Kermit Weeks, Polk City FL
P-51A-10-NA Mustang now flying and marked as "Miss Virginia" Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca [39]
A-36 Mustang Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51C-10-NT Mustang flying as "Ina the Macon Belle" of Lt. Lee Archer, the only 5 victory ace of the "Tuskegee Airmen" 332nd FG, 302nd FS. Kermit Weeks, Tamiami FL.
P-51D Mustang, Olympic flight museum, Olympia, Wa. In flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, IN. In flying condition, served with the North Dakota, Alabama, and Kentucky Air National Guards.
P-51 Mustang (Mk IV), Vintage Wings of Canada, Gatineau, Québec.
P-51D Mustang, N167F, Scandinavia Historic Flight, painted as "Old Crow", the aircraft of one of the 8th AF aces, Col. Clarence E. "Bud" Anderson of the 357th Fighter Group, 363rd Fighter Squadron.[40]
P-51D Mustang, SE-BIL, "It's About Time", based in Sweden.[41]
P-51D Mustang, (P-51D-20NA) Cavanaugh Flight Museum, Addison, Texas. The aircraft is in flying condition.
P-51D Mustang, 'Spam Can' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51D Mustang, 'Wee Willy II' Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
"Ole Yeller", flown by John Bagley at an airshow in Rexburg, ID.P-51D Mustang Marked as under restoration Planes of Fame, Chino, Ca
P-51H Mustang 44-64415 Flying, Whittington Bros, Fort Lauderdale FL
P-51D "Old Yeller" - Formerly owned by Bob Hoover. In flying condition. Currently owned by John Bagley of Rexburg, ID and displayed at the Legacy Flight Museum (http://www.legacyflightmuseum.com/).
CA-17 Mk.20 A68-1, flying, Wiley Sanders, Troy AL
CA-18 Kk.21 A68-104, VH-BOB, flying, Bob Eastgate, Australia
P-51D Mustang, G-BTCD S/NUMBER 44-73419 - Painted to resemble 44-13704, "Ferocious Frankie", Operated by the Old Flying Machine Company, Duxford, Cambridgshire, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDDGHC9Y1F4
P-51D Mustang, G-SIJJ, 44-072035 - painted to resemble 4464076 "Jumpin Jacques", Operated by the Hangar 11 Collection, North Weald, UK. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROuCJ9REAGw

== Specifications ==

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 32 ft 3 in (9.83 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 13 ft 8 in (4.17 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,635 lb (3,465 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,200 lb (4,175 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 12,100 lb (5,490 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-7 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,695 hp (1,265 kW)
Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0163
Drag area: 3.80 ft² (0.35 m²)
Aspect ratio: 5.83
Performance

Maximum speed: 437 mph (703 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Cruise speed: 362 mph (580 km/h)
Stall speed: 100 mph (160 km/h)
Range: 1,650 mi (2,755 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,900 ft (12,770 m)
Rate of climb: 3,200 ft/min (16.3 m/s)
Wing loading: 39 lb/ft² (192 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (300 W/kg)
Lift-to-drag ratio: 14.6
Recommended Mach limit 0.8
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns; 400 rounds per gun for the two inboard guns; 270 per outboard gun
2 hardpoints for up to 2,000 lb (907 kg)
10 × 5 in (127 mm) rockets

[edit] P-51H Mustang
Data from The Great Book of Fighters[42]

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Length: 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)
Height: 11 ft 1 in (3.38 m)
Wing area: 235 ft² (21.83 m²)
Empty weight: 7,040 lb (3,195 kg)
Loaded weight: 9,500 lb (4,310 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 11,500 lb (5,215 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Packard Merlin V-1650-9 liquid-cooled supercharged V-12, 1,380 hp (1,030 kW) military, 2,218 hp (1,655 kW) WEP
Performance

Maximum speed: 487 mph (784 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Range: 1,160 mi (1,865 km) with external tanks
Service ceiling 41,600 ft (12,680 m)
Rate of climb: 3,300 ft/min (16.8 m/s)
Wing loading: 40.4 lb/ft² (197.4 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (385 W/kg)
Armament

6 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns with 1,880 total rounds (400 rounds for each on the inner pair, and 270 rounds for each of the outer two pair), or 4 of the same guns with 1,600 total rounds (400 per gun).

KIA

2008-06-29T23:36:18Z

Trigger2: New page: Killed in action (KIA or K. I. A.) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their own forces by other hostile forces, or by "friendly fire" durin...

Killed in action (KIA or K. I. A.) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their own forces by other hostile forces, or by "friendly fire" during combat.[citation needed] The United States Department of Defense (DOD) says that those declared KIA need not have fired their weapons but have been killed due to hostile attack. KIA's do not come from incidents such as accidental vehicle crashes and other "non-hostile" events or terrorism. KIA can be applied both to front-line combat troops and to naval, air, and support troops.

Further, KIA denotes one to have been killed in action on the battlefield whereas died of wounds (or DOW) relates to someone who survived to reach a medical treatment facility. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) also uses DWRIA, rather than DOW, for "died of wounds received in action." However, historically, militaries and historians have used the latter acronym.

Tex Hill

2008-06-29T23:30:58Z

Trigger2: New page: David Lee "Tex" Hill (July 13, 1915 – October 11, 2007) was a fighter pilot and flying ace in World War II, with later service in Korea. == Early life == He was born in Kwangju, Korea...

David Lee "Tex" Hill (July 13, 1915 – October 11, 2007) was a fighter pilot and flying ace in World War II, with later service in Korea.

== Early life ==

He was born in Kwangju, Korea, the son of Presbyterian missionaries, but raised in Texas where he graduated from Austin College in 1938.

== Service History ==

Hill earned his wings as a U.S. Naval Aviator in 1939 and joined the fleet as a TBD Torpedo bomber pilot before joining a SBD dive bomber squadron aboard USS Ranger. In 1941, he was recruited with other Navy, Army and Marine Corps pilots to join the 1st American Volunteer Group (better known by its later nickname of the Flying Tigers). He learned to fly the P-40 Warhawk in the AVG training program in Burma and did well as a fighter pilot in the 2nd Pursuit Squadron (Panda Bear) as a flight leader and then squadron commander becoming one of the top aces under the tutelage of Claire Chennault.

David Lee "Tex" Hill landed his first kills on January 3, 1942 when he downed two Ki-27 Nates over the Japanese airfield at Tak, Thailand. He shot down two more on January 23rd and became an ace on the 24th when he shot down a fighter and a bomber over Rangoon. In March, he succeeded Jack Newkirk as Squadron Leader of the Second Squadron. By the time the AVG was disbanded in the summer of 1942, David "Tex" Hill was a double ace, credited with 12 ¼ victories.

On May 7th, 1942, the Japanese Army began building a pontoon bridge across the Salween River, which would allow them to move troops and supplies into China. To stem this tide, 2nd Squadron Leader David Lee "Tex" Hill led a flight of four new P-40Es, bombing and strafing into the mile deep gorge. During the next four days, the AVG pilots flew continuous missions into the gorge, effectively neutralizing the Japanese forces. From that day on, the Japanese never advanced farther than the west bank of the Salween. Claire Chennault would later write of these critical missions, "The American Volunteer Group had staved off China's collapse on the Salween."

On Thanksgiving Day 1943, he led a force of 12 B-25s, 10 P-38s, and 8 new P-51 Mustangs from Saichwan, China, on the first strike against Formosa. The Japanese had 100 bombers and 100 fighters located at Shimchiku Airfield, and the bombers were landing as "Tex" Hill’s force arrived. The enemy managed to get seven fighters airborne, but they were promptly shot down. Forty-two Japanese airplanes were destroyed and 12 more were probably destroyed in the attack. The American force returned home with no casualties.

After the deactivation of the Flying Tigers in July 1942, Hill was one of only five Flying Tigers to join its USAAF successor, the USAAF 23rd Fighter Group. He was promoted to major in the Army Air Corps, and activated the 75th Fighter Squadron and later to command the 23rd Fighter Group as a Colonel. Before returning to the states in late 1944, "Tex" Hill and his P-51 Mustang scratched another six Japanese aircraft. It is believed that he was the first to down a Zero with a P-51. Altogether, Hill destroyed 18.25 enemy aircraft. The .25 kills comes from an assist, he and 3 other pilots worked together to shoot down a Japanese Ki-27.

In 1944, Hill returned to the U.S. and took command of the 412th Fighter Group, America's first operational jet fighter group flying the Bell YP-59 Airacomet and the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star. He separated from active service in 1945.

Postwar, in July 1946, Hill was asked by Texas Governor Coke Stevenson to activate and accept command of the 58th Wing of the Texas Air National Guard. Hill activated Guard units throughout the Gulf Coast and became the youngest Brigadier General in the history of the Guard. He once again saw combat during the Korean war with the Texas Air Guard.

He ended his military career in the Air Force Reserves, retiring as a Brigadier General. He holds the Distinguished Service Cross, Silver Star, Distinguished Flying Cross with three Oak Leaf Clusters, Presidential Unit Citation with Oak Leaf Cluster, Chinese Order of the Cloud and Banner 4th, 5th and 6th grades, 2-Star Wing Decorations, Chinese Victory Medal, Legion of Merit, and British Distinguished Flying Cross.

== Later Life ==

He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1968. In 1999, Hill was inducted into the Texas Aviation Hall of Fame located at the Lone Star Flight Museum in Galveston, Texas.

Hill died at the age of ninety-two on October 11, 2007 in Terrell Hills, Texas, of congestive heart failure. More than 2,000 people attended his funeral. He was buried at nearby Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery.

On November 2, 2007, the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredericksburg will observe "Tex" Hill Day with speeches, patriotic music, and friends' memories of the fallen hero

== Reccomended Reading ==

Flying Tigers: American Volunteer Group to see what Gen. David L. "Tex" Hill Sr. thought about Daniel Ford's version .
Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and the American Volunteer Group (Smithsonian History of Aviation), by Daniel Ford, 1995
The Lady and the Tigers: Remembering the Flying Tigers of World War II, by Olga Greenlaw, edited by Daniel Ford in this 2002 edition

AVG Flying Tigers

2008-06-29T23:28:04Z

Trigger2:

Flying Tigers was the nickname of the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) that operated within the Chinese Air Force in 1941 and 1942. In essence, the group was a private military contractor, although they have also been called mercenaries. Its members were former United States Army (USAAF), Navy (USN), and Marine Corps (USMC) pilots and ground crew, recruited under Presidential approval and commanded by Claire Chennault. The group consisted of three fighter squadrons that trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II with the intention of defending China against Japanese forces.

The Tigers' shark-faced fighters remain among the most recognizable of any individual combat aircraft of World War II, and they demonstrated innovative tactical victories when the news in the U.S. was filled with little more than stories of defeat at the hands of the Japanese forces.

The group first saw combat on 20 December 1941, 12 days after Pearl Harbor (local time). It achieved notable success during the lowest period of the war for U.S. and Allied Forces, giving hope to Americans that they would eventually succeed against the Japanese. The Tigers were credited with destroying almost 300 aircraft while losing only 14 pilots on combat missions. In July 1942, the AVG replaced by the U.S. Army 23rd Fighter Group, which was later absorbed into the U.S. 14th Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The 23rd Group went on to achieve similar combat success, while retaining the nose art and nickname of the volunteer unit.

== History ==
The AVG was largely the creation of Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer who became military aviation advisor to Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the Sino-Japanese War. Chennault's retirement from the U.S. Army, ostensibly for physical disability, probably owed much to the unpopularity of his advocacy of "pursuit" aviation over bombardment, contrary to the beliefs of the upper echelons of the USAAC, and to his hope that he could implement his theories in China.[1] Even before he retired, Chennault had been approached by Chinese Air Force (CAF) officials and offered the opportunity to undertake the training and organization of the CAF. He also saw it as a "chance to put his ideas into effect" in China.[2][1]

The Soviet Union supplied fighter and bomber squadrons to China, starting at the end of 1937, but the Russian units were mostly withdrawn from China in 1940. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and U.S. pilots to fly them. Since the U.S. was not at war, this could not happen openly, but the request was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt himself. The resulting clandestine operation was organized in large part by Lauchlin Currie, a young economist in the White House, and by Roosevelt intimate Thomas G. Corcoran. (Currie's assistant was John King Fairbank, who later became America's preeminent Asian scholar.) Financing was handled by China Defense Supplies – primarily Tommy Corcoran's creation – with money loaned by the U.S. government. Purchases were then made by the Chinese under the "Cash and Carry" provision of the Neutrality Act of 1939.

== Formation of the AVG ==
Chennault spent the winter of 1940–1941 in Washington, supervising the purchase of 100 Curtiss P-40 fighters (diverted from a Royal Air Force order) and the recruiting of 100 pilots and about 200 ground crewmen. Sixty pilots came from the Navy and Marine Corps, and forty from the Army Air Corps, one of whom was refused a passport because he had earlier flown as a mercenary in Spain. Ten more army flight instructors were hired as check pilots for Chinese cadets, and some of these would ultimately join the AVG’s combat squadrons.

The volunteer pilots were discharged from the American armed services, to be employed for "training and instruction" by a private military contractor, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company, which paid them $600 a month for pilot officer, $675 a month for flight leader, and $750 for squadron leader, although no pilot was recruited at this level. (A USAAF captain in 1942, with flight and overseas pay, earned $347 a month.) The pilots were also orally promised a bounty of $500 for each enemy aircraft shot down.

Although sometimes regarded as a mercenary unit, the AVG had government funding and approval. Most histories of the Flying Tigers indicate that on 15 April 1941, President Roosevelt signed a "secret executive order" authorizing servicemen on active duty to resign from the U.S. military in order to sign up for the AVG. However, Flying Tigers historian Daniel Ford could find no evidence that such an order ever existed, and he argued that "a wink and a nod" was more the president's style. In any event, the AVG was organized and in part directed out of the White House until the unit was disbanded.

The 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) was formed with plans for a follow-on bomber group and second fighter group that were aborted after the Pearl Harbor attack. During the summer and fall 1941, some 300 men carrying civilian passports that boarded ships destined for Burma. They were initially based at a British airfield in Toungoo for training while their aircraft were assembled and test flown. Chennault set up schoolhouse type conditions which was made all the more necessary because many pilots had "lied about their flying experience, claiming pursuit experience when they had flown only bombers and sometimes much less powerful airplanes." They called Chennault, "the Old Man" due to his much older age and leathery exterior obtained from years flying open cockpit pursuit aircraft in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that Chennault had flown as a fighter pilot in China, although stories that he was a combat ace are probably apocryphal.

== Curtis P40 ==
AVG fighter aircraft came from a Curtiss assembly line producing Tomahawk IIB models for the Royal Air Force in North Africa. The Tomahawk IIB was essentially the same variant as the U.S. Army's earlier P-40B model. (The major difference was that the fuel tanks on the P-40B/Tomahawk IIA were protected by an exterior rubber membrane, while those on the IIB had an interior membrane, believed by the RAF to be more effective at sealing leaks.) The fighters were purchased without "government-furnished equipment" such as reflector gunsights, radios and wing guns; the lack of these items caused continual difficulties for the AVG in Burma and China.

The 100 P-40 aircraft were crated and sent to Burma on third country freighters during spring 1941. At Rangoon, they were unloaded, assembled and test flown by personnel of Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) before being delivered to the AVG training unit at Toungoo. One crate was dropped into the water and a wing assembly was ruined by salt water immersion, so CAMCO was able to deliver only 99 Tomahawks before war broke out. (Many of those were destroyed in training accidents.) The 100th fuselage was trucked to a CAMCO plant in Loiwing, China, and later made whole with parts from damaged aircraft. Shortages in equipment with spare parts almost impossible to obtain in Burma along with the slow introduction of replacement fighter aircraft were continual impediments although the AVG did receive 50 replacement P-40E fighters from USAAF stocks toward the end of its combat tour.

== Chennault fighter doctrine ==

Chennault preached a radically different approach to air combat based on his study of Japanese tactics and equipment, his observation of the tactics used by Russian pilots in China, and his judgment of the strengths and weaknesses of his own aircraft and pilots. The actual average strength of the AVG was never more than 62 combat-ready pilots and fighters. Although he faced serious obstacles since many AVG pilots were inexperienced and a few quit at the first opportunity, however, Chennault made a virtue out of these disadvantages, shifting unsuitable pilots to staff jobs and always ensuring that he had a squadron or two in reserve.

His doctrine called for pilots to take on enemy aircraft in teams from an altitude advantage, since their aircraft were not as maneuverable or as numerous as the Japanese fighters they would encounter. He prohibited his pilots from entering into a turning fight with the nimble Japanese fighters, telling them to execute a diving or slashing attack and to dive away to set up for another attack. This "dive-and-zoom" technique was contrary to what the men had learned in U.S. service as well as what the Royal Air Force (RAF) pilots in Burma had been taught; it had been used successfully, however, by Russian units serving with the Chinese Air Force.

The P-40's good qualities included pilot armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, sturdy construction, heavy armament (two 50-cal. and four 30-cal. machine guns), and a higher diving speed than most Japanese aircraft – qualities that could be used to advantage in accordance with Chennault's combat tactics. Chennault created an early warning network of spotters that would give his fighters time to take off and climb to a superior altitude where this tactic could be executed.

AVG fighter aircraft were painted with a large shark face on the front of the aircraft. This was done after pilots saw a photograph of No. 112 Squadron RAF in North Africa sporting a fierce shark mouth, which in turn had adopted the shark motif from German pilots flying Messerschmitt Bf-110 fighters in Crete. About the same time, the AVG was dubbed "The Flying Tigers" by their Washington support group, called China Defense Supplies.

== Combat History ==
The port of Rangoon in Burma and the Burma Road leading from there to China were of crucial importance for the Republic of China, as the eastern regions of China were under Japanese occupation so virtually all of the foreign matériel destined for the armed forces of the Republic arrived via that port. By November 1941, when the pilots were trained and most of the P-40s had arrived in Asia, the Flying Tigers were divided into three squadrons: 1st Squadron (“Adam & Eves”); 2nd Squadron (“Panda Bears”) and 3rd Squadron (“Hell’s Angels”). They were assigned to opposite ends of the Burma Road to protect this vital line of communications. Two squadrons were based at Kunming in China and a third at Mingaladon Airport near Rangoon. When the United States officially entered the war, the AVG had 82 pilots and 79 aircraft, although not all were combat-ready.

The AVG had its first combat on 20 December 1941, when aircraft of the 1st and 2nd squadrons intercepted 10 unescorted Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" bombers of the 21st Hikotai raiding Kunming. Three of the Japanese bombers were shot down near Kunming and a fourth was damaged so severely that it crashed before returning to its airfield at Hanoi. No P-40s were lost through enemy action, and the bombers jettisoned their loads before reaching their target. Furthermore, the Japanese discontinued their raids on Kunming while the AVG was based there.

== Defense of Rangoon ==
At this time, the focus of Japan's offensive efforts in the AVG's coverage area was southern Burma. The 3rd Squadron — 18 aircraft strong — defended Rangoon from 23 December-25. On 23 December, Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally" heavy bombers of the 60th, 62nd and 98th Sentais, along with single-engined Mitsubishi Ki-30 "Ann" attack bombers of the 31st Sentai, sortied against Rangoon. They were escorted by Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" fighters of the 77th Sentai. The JAAF formation was intercepted by the AVG and RAF Brewster Buffalos of 67 Squadron. Eight Ki-21s were shot down for the loss of three AVG P-40s. The 60th Sentai was particularly hard hit — it lost five out of the 15 bombers it had dispatched. But Rangoon and Mingaladon airfield were successfully bombed, with the city suffering more than a thousand dead. Two Buffalos and two P-40s were destroyed on the ground, and one P-40 crashed when it attempted to land on a bomb-damaged runway.

On 25 December, the JAAF returned, reinforced by Ki-21s of the 12th Sentai and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusas of the 64th Sentai. Hayabusa, Japanese for "Peregrine Falcon", was code named "Oscar" by Allied pilots. A total of 63 bombers escorted by 25 fighters were committed. These were intercepted by 12 P-40s of the AVG's 3rd Squadron and 15 Buffalos of 67 Squadron. Ten Japanese aircraft were lost in the resulting battle: two Ki-43s, four Ki-27s and four Ki-21s. The Allies lost five Buffalos and three P-40s. Mingaladon airfield was once again damaged, and eight Buffalos were destroyed on the ground.

After its losses in the 23-25 December battles, the 3rd Squadron was relieved by the 2nd Squadron "Panda Bears", which carried out a series of raids on JAAF airbases in Thailand. The Japanese had moved aircraft to Malaya to finish off Singapore, and its remaining aircraft in the area (the 77th, 31st and 62nd Sentais) launched fighter sweeps and counter raids on the Allied airfields at Mingaladon.

On 12 January, the Japanese launched their Burma Campaign. Significantly outnumbered, the AVG was gradually reduced through attrition, but often exacted a disproportionate toll of their attackers. On 24 January, six Ki-21s of the 14th Sentai escorted by Ki-27s attacked Mingaladon. All the Ki-21s were shot down by the AVG and RAF defenders. On 28 January, a fighter sweep of 37 Ki-27s was engaged by 16 AVG P-40s and two RAF fighters. Three "Nates" were shot down for the loss of two P-40s. The next day, another sweep of 20 Ki-27s of the 70th Sentai was met by 10 Allied fighters (eight P-40s and two Hawker Hurricanes). Four were shot down for the loss of no Allied aircraft.

Despite these minor victories and Chennault's reinforcement of the "Panda Bears" with pilots from the "Adam and Eves", by mid-February, only 10 P-40s were still operational at Mingaladon. Commonwealth troops retreated before the Japanese onslaught, and the AVG was pressed into the ground attack role to support them. One unfortunate result of these missions was a prolonged air attack on a suspected Japanese column on 21 February that turned out to consist of Commonwealth troops. More than 100 Allied lives were lost in this friendly fire incident. On 27 February, after hearing that the RAF was retreating and pulling out its radar equipment, the AVG withdrew to bases in northern Burma.

It is estimated that while defending Rangoon, the AVG destroyed 50 Japanese aircraft while losing 20 P-40s. Ten AVG pilots were either killed or listed as missing. This was a very credible performance, especially when considering that the AVG was outnumbered and faced experienced and fully trained Japanese pilots. The main disadvantage of JAAF fighter pilots of this period was the near-obsolescence of their predominant fighter type in the theater, the Ki-27. Although it was more maneuverable than the P-40, its armament and performance was inferior. In fact, its cruising speed was less than that of the Ki-21 bombers it was intended to escort.

== Retreat into China ==

After Rangoon was lost to the Japanese at the end of February, the AVG relocated to Magwe, a small British airfield more than 300 miles north of Rangoon. Chennault started moving elements of the now reconstituted 3rd Squadron to Magwe as reinforcement to his worn down 1st and 2nd squadrons. Aircraft attrition became so high that at this point, individual squadron distinctions became meaningless, and all three squadrons had elements based there, along with a number of RAF aircraft. In total, the Allies had 38 aircraft, including eight P-40s and 15 Hawker Hurricanes. Opposing them were 271 Japanese aircraft, including 115 fighters. Although the AVG and the RAF scored some successes against the JAAF, Magwe was continuously bombed, including a very heavy raid on 21 March by 151 bombers and fighters. On 23 March with only four aircraft left, the AVG was forced to relocate to Loiwing, just across the Chinese border.

Reinforced by new P-40E "Kittyhawks" and by repaired aircraft from the AVG's excellent maintenance group, 12 P-40s were based at Loiwing on 8 April. Despite the long retreats, their losses and incessant air combat, the AVG still retained their abilities. That day, 12 Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusas from the 64th Sentai raided the base. In the ensuing series of dogfights, four Ki-43s were downed in exchange for one P-40E destroyed on the ground. During this period, Chinese and American commanders pressured Chennault to order his pilots to undertake so-called "morale missions". These were overflights and ground attacks intended to raise the morale of hard-pressed Chinese soldiers by showing they were getting air support. The AVG's pilots seethed with resentment at these dangerous missions (which some considered useless), a feeling which culminated in the so-called "Pilot's Revolt" of mid-April. Chennault suppressed the "revolt" and ordered the ground attack missions to continue. But despite their efforts, the Allied situation in Burma continued to deteriorate. On 29 April the AVG was ordered to evacuate Loiwing and relocate to Baoshan in China.

Like the AVG's other bases, Baoshan was repeatedly bombed by the Japanese Army Air Force. Still, the AVG scored against their JAAF tormentors, bringing down four "Nates" of the 11th Sentai and two "Anns" on 5 May. By 4 May, the successful Japanese Burma offensive was winding down, except for mopping up actions. One of these was an attempt by a regiment of the Japanese 56th division to drive for Kunming, an effort that was stopped by the Chinese army operating with strong air support from the AVG. Despite being on the defensive, the AVG continued to harass the JAAF with raids on their Vietnamese bases

== Last combats ==

With the Burma campaign over, Chennault redeployed his squadrons to provide air protection for China. The Doolittle Raid had prompted the Japanese to launch an offensive to seize AVG air bases that could be used as launching points for attacks on the Japanese homeland. By 1 June, personnel that would form the nucleus of the new USAAF 23rd Fighter Group (the AVG's replacement) were beginning to trickle into the theater. Some of the last missions the AVG flew were defending Guilin against raids conducted by JAAF Nates, Lilies and new Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu "Nick" heavy fighters. The AVG's last combat was over Hengyang on the day it was disbanded, 4 July. In this final action, four Ki-27s were shot down for no loss.

== AVG assesment ==

The AVG was officially credited with 297 enemy aircraft destroyed, including 229 in the air, based on the Chennault papers, combat reports, and CAMCO records.[9] Another researcher interviewed Japanese veterans that were engaged with the AVG and came up with a much lower number of victories (115) based on Japanese accounts.[10]

Flight leader and fighter ace Robert "R.T." Smith stands next to his P-40 fighter at Kunming, China. The “Flying Tiger” insignia was created by the Walt Disney Company. Fourteen pilots were killed in action, captured, or disappeared on combat missions; two died of wounds sustained in bombing raids; and six were killed in accidents during the Flying Tigers' existence as a combat force.

Even when using the lower figure of Japanese aircraft downed, the AVG's kill ratio was superior to that achieved by contemporary Allied air groups in Malaya, the Philippines, and elsewhere. The AVG's success is all the more remarkable since they were outnumbered by Japanese fighters in almost all their engagements. The AVG's P-40s were arguably superior to the JAAF's Ki-27s, but the group's kill ratio against modern Ki-43s was still in its favor. In Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941-1942, Daniel Ford attributes the AVG's success to morale and group esprit. He notes that its pilots were "triple volunteers" who had volunteered for service with the U.S. military, the AVG, and brutal fighting in Burma. The result was a corps of experienced and skilled volunteer pilots who wanted to fight.

However, success with the P-40 in this theater of war was not unique to the AVG. Other P-40 equipped squadrons operating in the CBI (China / Burma / India theater), notably the 10th and 14th air forces, did extremely well against the Japanese Air Force. P-40s were credited with 973 enemy aircraft in theater, 64.8 percent of all the enemy aircraft lost.[11] Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that "...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China. They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and the Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it."

== Notable AVG personalities ==

One of the more famous pilots was Gregory “Pappy” Boyington, who was discharged from the AVG in April 1942 and returned to active duty with the U.S. Marine Corps. He went on to command the successful “Black Sheep” Squadron in the Solomon Islands, an outfit with many similarities to the Flying Tigers, and was one of two AVG veterans (the other being James Howard of the USAAF) to be awarded the Medal of Honor. Other notable AVG veterans were David Lee "Tex" Hill, later commander of the USAAF 23rd Fighter Group; Charles Older, who postwar earned a law degree, became a California Superior Court judge, and presided at the murder trial of Charles Manson; and Kenneth Jernstedt, long-time Oregon legislator and mayor of his home town of Hood River. Robert Prescott founded Flying Tiger Line as a cargo carrier, along with other AVG pilots. Allen "Bert" Christman, killed at Rangoon in January 1942, had early scripted and drawn the Scorchy Smith and Sandman comic strips. The journalist Joseph Alsop served as Chennault's "staff secretary" while the AVG trained at Rangoon; he was interned at Hong Kong on Christmas Day 1941.

== Transistion into the USAAF ==

The success of the AVG led to negotiations in spring 1942 to induct the unit into the USAAF with Chennault as the commander. Chennault was reinstated into the USAAF as a colonel and immediately promoted to brigadier general as commander of tactical U.S. Army Air Forces units in China, (initially designated the "China Air Task Force" and later redesignated the 14th Air Force), while continuing to command the AVG by virtue of his position in the Chinese Air Force. On 4 July 1942, the AVG was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group. Not all of the AVG pilots decided to remain with the unit as a result of the strong arm tactics by the USAAF general sent to negotiate with them. However, five pilots accepted commissions in China including "Tex" Hill, one of Chennault's most loyal devotees, with others remaining for a two-week transition period. (U.S. airmen and the press continued to use the “Flying Tiger” name to refer to USAAF units in China to the end of the war, and the name continues to be applied to certain air force and army aviation squadrons.) Most AVG pilots became transport pilots in China, went back to America into civilian jobs, or rejoined the military services and fought elsewhere in the war.

One of the pilots drawn to the success of the AVG was Robert Lee Scott, Jr. who was flying supplies into Kunming over the Hump from India. He convinced Chennault to loan him a P-40 which he began flying as a one man air force to protect the supply route. His aggressiveness and success led to Chennault recruiting him as commander of the 23rd Fighter Group. Scott brought recognition to his exploits and the Flying Tigers with his best selling book God is My Co-pilot that was also made into a popular movie.

== Recognition of the AVG ==

Just before their 50th reunion in 1992, the AVG veterans were retroactively recognized as members of the U.S. military services during the seven months the group was in combat against the Japanese. The AVG was then awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for "professionalism, dedication to duty, and extraordinary heroism." In 1996, the U.S. Air Force awarded the pilots the Distinguished Flying Cross and the ground crew were all awarded the Bronze Star.

Thirty-three AVG pilots and three ground crew received the Nationalist Chinese Order of the Cloud Banner, and many AVG pilots received the Nationalist Chinese Air Force Medal. Each AVG ace and double ace was awarded the Nationalist Chinese Five Star or Ten Star Wing Medal

== AVG aces ==

As with all air forces, there was overclaiming by the AVG due to the confusion and speed of air combat. For example, in the big Christmas Day battle over Rangoon, AVG and RAF pilots claimed 28 Japanese aircraft while 10 were actually lost. In the same combat, Japanese Army Air Force pilots and gunners claimed 36 Allied aircraft while eight were actually shot down. It would only be after the war that true combat losses could be determined by comparing the after action and loss reports of the combatants.

Nineteen pilots were credited by the AVG with five or more air-to-air victories:[9]

Robert Neale: 13 victories
David Lee "Tex" Hill: 10.25 victories (While in the AVG, 18.25 total by the end of the war)
George Burgard: 10 victories
Robert Little: 10 victories
Charles Older: 10 victories
Robert T. Smith: 8.9 victories
William McGarry: 8 victories
Charles Bond: 7 victories
Frank Lawlor: 7 victories
John Newkirk: 7 victories
Robert Hedman: 6 victories
C. Joseph Rosbert: 6 victories
J. Richard Rossi: 6 victories
Robert Prescott: 5.5 victories
Percy Bartelt: 5 victories
William Bartling: 5 victories
Edmund Overend: 5 victories
Robert Sandell: 5 victories
Robert H. Smith: 5 victories

== AVG wrecks ==

The wreckage of a P-40 with CAF serial number P-8115 is on display in Chiang Mai,Thailand. The aircraft is believed to be that flown by William “Mac” McGarry when he was hit by anti-aircraft fire while flying top cover over Chiang Mai on 24 March 1942. The aircraft crashed into the rain forest in northern Thailand. McGarry was captured and interrogated, and spent most of the war in a Thai prison. Toward the end of the war the OSS arranged for the Free Thai Movement to spirit him out of the prison to a PBY Catalina in the Gulf of Thailand. The wreck of his P-40 was discovered in 1991, and consists of the P-40's Allison engine, Hamilton Standard propeller and parts of the airframe. Today the wreckage is displayed at the Tango Squadron Wing 41 Museum in Chiang Mai, Thailand.[12]

The wreck of another AVG P-40 is believed to be in Lake Dianchi (Lake Kunming). The fighter is believed to be a P-40E piloted by John Blackburn when it crashed into the lake on a gunnery training flight on 28 April 1942, killing the pilot. His body was recovered from the aircraft, which was submerged in 20 feet of water. In 1997 a U.S.-Chinese group called the Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation was formed to locate the aircraft and possibly raise and restore it. In March 1998, they contacted the China Expedition Association about conducting the recovery operation. Over 300 aircraft are believed to have crashed into Lake Dianchi (including a second AVG P-40) so locating the aircraft proved difficult. In 2003, an aircraft believed to be Blackburn's was found embedded in nine feet of bottom silt. An effort was made in September 2005 to raise the aircraft, but the recovery was plagued with difficulties and it remains deep under the lake bottom. Since the aircraft was complete and relatively undamaged when John Blackburn's body was removed from it in 1942, it is hoped that the aircraft will be in good condition and capable of being restored, possibly to flying condition.

== Tributes and Memorials ==

The National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, has an extensive display dedicated to the AVG. The museum's wall and glass cases contain a description of the AVG's history as well as many artifacts, including an A-2 jacket worn by an AVG pilot while flying in China, and the Flying Tigers banner presented to the AAF by the Chinese government during WWII. The museum's P-40E is displayed nearby.

The National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida also features a Flying Tiger display reflecting the fact that so many Navy and Marine Corps aviators were part of the AVG.

The AVG monument in the National Museum of the United States Air Force Memorial Garden features a large marble sculpture of a pagoda crowned with a brass model of a P-40. Below the aircraft are three balls representing the balls hoisted upon a pole used to alert the AVG of a Japanese air attack. On the pagoda's sides are etched the emblems of the AVG and 14th AF. On the sides of the memorial's base are etchings of paddy fields, the Himalayan Mountains, and scenes of daily life in China during the war. The monument stands nearly 14 feet tall.

A memorial to the AVG and the 14th AF is located at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. It depicts a P-40 in AVG markings with a bronze plaque describing the history of the AVG, and Vandenberg's role as headquarters for the 14th AF.

A memorial to the AVG in Chiang Mai, Thailand, was dedicated on 11 November 2003. The marble obelisk is inscribed on four sides with dedications to Chennault, Jack Van Kuren Newkirk, who was killed in North Thailand on 24 March 1942, Charles Mott and William McGarry, who were shot down and became Japanese POWs in Thailand.

In Taiwan, Madame Chiang Kai-Shek requested a statue of Claire Lee Chennault in the New Park of Taipei to commemorate this wartime friend after his death. Today, the statue is relocated at Hualian AFB of the ROCAF.

The Flying Tigers Memorial is located in the village of Zhijiang, Hunan Province, China and is the only museum in the world dedicated exclusively to the Flying Tigers. Zhijiang had formerly been one of Chennault's headquarters for the 14th AF. The memorial originally opened in 2003 in the former headquarters building. In 2005 the memorial was rebuilt, with displays incorporating artifacts obtained from the AVG veterans who had attended the first dedication. The memorial reopened in September 2005, with several AVG pilots and their families present at the dedication. The new memorial building is a steel and marble structure, with wide sweeping steps leading up to a platform with columns holding up the memorial's sweeping roof. Inside is a replica G-1 jacket donated by AVG pilot Richard "Dick" Rossi. On the memorial's back wall, etched in black marble, are the names of all members of the Flying Tigers (AVG, 75th Fighter Squadron, 14th Air Force) who died in China. Photos of AVG pilots and staff are displayed throughout the museum, as well as illuminated paintings of AVG scenes by artists John Shaw and Roy Grinnell. On one wall, a 1/4 scale model of the nose of a P-40 protrudes with its propellers spinning and engine puffing smoke, while below a diorama depicts the village of Zhijiang being attacked by Japanese bombers.

In 2005, the city of Kunming held a ceremony memorializing the history of the Flying Tigers in China. Many pilots of that time or their generation came to Kunming to commemorate that period in history.

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